THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
chap, ii., §§ 10-11, New York, 1894). Or, again, in one aspect the Logos is to be regarded as the eternal Humanity in God, the " Archetype of the not yet created Man," which became incarnate in Jesus Christ (T. C. Edwards, The God-Man, London, 1896). (3) W Herrmann holds that the preexistence was not ideal, but personal — a contradiction indeed, to be removed only when the riddle of time in wliich we now conceive reality had been solved for us {Die Religion im Verhaltniss zum Welterkennen und zur Sittlichkeit, p. 438, Halle, 1879) .
As to theories of incarnation several tendencies are evident. (1) The ethical aspect of the incarnation is increasingly emphasized. The traditional christology has been based 2. Incar- on the essential disparity of the divine nation, and human natures. This was held to be necessary in order to safeguard the integrity of the two natures. But however jcarefully the statement of the doctrine was protested, it did not escape the force of the criticism in the preceding text (see VI., 2, § 2). To meet this difficulty, therefore, attention has been directed away from the two-nature doctrine on its purely metaphysical side to the ethical and religious aspects of the incarnation. As in the traditional view, God and man are here affirmed in all the integrity of their spiritual being, but the point of view is changed. It is not so much a question of nature and essence and hypostasis as of psychological experience and character, of inner development and historical influence, i.e., of the moral and spiritual consciousness of Jesus Christ in which the purpose of God is revealed and realized, and the unity of God and man are disclosed. Accordingly, the QEQQf^ of the incarnation is found in Jesus's consciousness of his vocation, in his grace and truth, his dominion over the world, and his success in establishing his commimity with attributes analogous to his own. This ethical estimate of Jesus results in a religious valuation of him. We call Christ God because he has for us the religious worth of God (Ritschl). (2) The incarnation is conceived of as an immanent necessity in the love of God to selfexpression. Again, if man was created in the image of God, and his perfection was possible only in imion with God, then an incarnation of one who should enable man to consimimate this union was necessary apart from sin. Thus, incarnation for the sake of redemption, instead of being an afterthought of God, an accidental expedient in behalf of man, was involved in the essential ethical relation of God to the creation (B. F. Westcott, " Gospel of the Creation," in Commentary on the Epistles of St. John, London, 1885). (3) The proof of the divinity of Christ is becoming less external and dogmatic than internal and ethical. If in the earlier arguments the greater stress was on the application to Christ of Old Testament terms referring to God, the ascription to him of names, attributes, and works of God, the New Testament designation of him as Son of God in a metaphysical sense, and the fact that he was an object of religious worship, in more recent thought the principal emphasis is laid or the uniqueness of his moral character, the might oi his moral appeal to the conscience and the will, thi
transformation in experience which follows obedience to his leadership; in>_SB2rd,-in-hiiB-is-a revelation of that which is most real Jo God,and_most icieaL,ia.. man— love. This ethical impulse to the interpretation of Christ, which among many recent attempts of the same kind was disclosed in Bushnell's incomparable tenth chapter of Nature and the Supernatural— " The Character of Jesus Forbids His Possible Classification with Men" — has by no means lost its force, and every modern treatment of the person of Jesus pays tribute to this demand. (4) The incarnation is increasingly regarded in an essential relation to the redemptive work of Christ. Not, then, the atonement irrespective of the life of Jesus, but — a truth which was deeply voiced by Athanasius in The Incarnation of the Word — God comes to man both to reveal and to realize the ideal oneness of God and man. Thus the incarnation is the atonement (cf. J. M. Wilson, The Gospel of the Atonement, London, 1899). (5) Further, the cosmic relations of the incarnation are receiving renewed attention. Here several currents meet and mingle: the Pauline conception of the universal significance of Christ (Col. i. 15-17), the federal, based on the natural, headship of Christ, the pantheistic trend which discerns in the particular the essence of the universal, and evolution which finds the goal and crown of the creation in the ethical and religious consciousness. Christ is, accordingly, the supreme expression and consummation of the Logos of God in which the whole creation finds its interpretative principle and end. C. A. B.
Bibliography: I. For O. T. Christology consult the works cited under Messiah. For N. T. Christology consult the works on N. T. Theology, especially: W. Beyschlag, N. T. Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1896; E. Reuss,'Lo Theologie chretienne au siecle apostoliqm, 2 vols., Strasburg, 1864; J. J. Van Oosterzee, Theology of N. T., London, 1879; B. Weiss, Biblische Theologie des N. T., Stuttgart, 1903, Eng. transl., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-83;
H. H. Wendt, Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., Gottingen, 1886-90, Eng. transl., London, 1892; G. B. Stevens, Theology of N. T., New York, 1899; E. P. Gould, Biblical Theology of N. T., ib. 1900. Consult further: C. F. Nosgen, Christus der Menschen- und Gottessohn, Gotha, 1869; W. F. Gess, Christi Person und Werk, 3 vols., Basel, 1870-78; H. Bushnell, God in Christ, New York, 1877;
I. A. Dorner, Christliche Glaubenslehre, ii. 257 sqq., Berlin, 1880; P. Schaff, Person of Christ, New York, 1882; A. B. Bruce, Kingdom of God, Edinburgh, 1889; J. A. Beet, Through Christ to God, pp. 215-301, London, 1892; J. Stalker, Christology of Jesus, ib. 1899; A. M. Fairbairn, Philosophy of the Christian Religion, pp. 356-379, ib. 1902; N. Schmidt, Prophet of Nazareth, New York, 1905.
II.-III. The best detailed account of the development of doctrine with its environment is still Neander, Christian Church, i. 575-608, 630-640, ii. 405^66, 478-504. Especially valuable are the histories of doctrine, particularly: Harnack, Dogma, vols, i.-iii.; I. A. Dorner, History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ, Edinburgh, 1859; F. Nietzsche, Dogmengeschichte, Berlin, 1870; A. Reville, Histoire du dogme de la diviniie de Jesus Christ, 3d. ed., Paris, 1904, Eng. transl.. Hist, of the Doctrine of the Deity of Jesus Christ, London, 1870; K. R. Hagenbach, Hist. o) Doctrine, vol. i., Edinburgh, 1880; F. Loofs, Dogmengeschichte, Halle, 1893; R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 2, vols., Erlangen, 1895-98; G. P. Fisher, Hist, of Christian Doctrine, New York, 1896; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vol. 1., Eng. transl., vols, i.-ii. Consult also: D. Petavius, De theologicis dogmatibus, 5 vols., Paris, 1644-50 (collects ante-Nicene and Nicene testimonies); G. Bull, Defensio fidei NiccencB, Oxford, 1685 (a standard); E. Burton, Testimonies of Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of
Christologry Christopher, Saint
Christ, Oxford, 1829 (also a classic); F. C. Baur, Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwcr dung Goites, 3 vols, liibingen, 1841-43; H. Voigt, Die Lehre des Athanasius, Bremen, 1861; W. Mackintosh, Study o/ the Doctrine o; Jesus as Developed from Judaism and Converted into Dogma, Glasgow, 1894; O. Pfleiderer, Early Christian Conception of Christ, London, 1905; B. B. Warfield, in Princeton Theological Review, 1905, pp. 529-557, 1906, pp. 1-37, 145-168; Scha,S, Christian Church,
ii. 544-560, iii. 705-740.
IV.-VII. Consult, besides the works on the history of doctrine cited above (especially Harnack, Dogma, vols.
iii. -iv.): Schaff, Christian Church, vol. iv.; W. A. Arendt, Leo der Grosse, Llainz, 1835; J. Fulton, The Chalcedonian Decree, New York, 1892; L. L. Paine, Critical History of the Evolution of Trinitarianism, Boston, 1900; J. O. Dykes, in Expository Times, Oct., 1905- Jan., 1900; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols, iii.-iv., Eng. transl., vols. iii. -v.
VIII. Original documents are, Lutheran: Formula ConcordicB (convenient in Jacob's edition, vol. i., Philadelphia, 1893); J. Brenz, De personate unione duarum naturarum in Christo, 1560; idem, De majestate domini nostri, 1502; M. Chemnitz, Deduahus naturis in Christo, Frankfort, 1576. Jielormed: Admonitio NeostadieTisis, 1577; L.Danjpus, De duabus naturia a Chemnitio, Geneva, 1581; H. Zanchi, De incarnatione filii Dei, Heidelberg, 1593; the christological writings of T. Beza and Z. Ursinus. For specific discussions consult, Lutheran: F. H. R. Frank, Theologie der Concordienformel, iii. 165-396, Erlangen, 1865; C. P. Krauth, Conservative Reformation and its Theology, pp. 456 sqq., Philadelphia, 1872; H. E. Jacobs, Book of Concord, vol. ii., ib. 1893. Reformed: H. L. J. Heppe, Reformirie Dogmatik, pp. 351 sqq., Elberfeld, 1861; Schaff, Creeds, i. 285 sqq., 317 sqq. Critical: M. Schnockenburger, Zur kirchlichen Christologie, Pforzheim, 1861; idem, Vergleichcnde Darstellung des lutherischen und rcformirten Leiirbegriffs, Stuttgart, 1855. General works are those already cited of Dorner, Reville, Nietzsche, Seeberg, and Eaur; R. A. Lipsius, Dogmatik, pp. 441-483, Brunswick, 1893. Consult also H. Schultz, Die Lehre von der Gottheit Christi, Communicatio idiomatum, Gotha, 1881; A. Ritschl, Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, pp. 416 sqq., Edinburgh, 1872.
IX. On the Giessen side, the Saxon Solida decisio, Leipsic, 1624; J. Feuerborn, Sciagraphia de divine Jesu Christo . , 1621; idem, Kei/wfrtypaffna xptaToAoyiK-q, Marburg, 1627; B. Mentzer, Necessaria et justa defensio, Giessen, 1624. On the Tiibingen side: L. Osiander, De onmiprmsentia CAnsiiAomims, Tubingen, 1620; T. Thumm, iiajestatis Jesu Christi eea.v6pixnrov, ib. 1621; idem, Taireifi^aiyfo^iiLa sacra, ib. 1623; ActaMentzeriana, ib. 1625. On the Roman Catholic side: Bellum ubiquisticum vetus et novum, Dillingen, 1627; Alter und neuerlutherischerKatzenkrieg von dcrUbiquitat,Ingo\sta.dt, 1629. Historical and critical: J. F. Cotta, Historia doctrines de duplice statu Christi, in his ed. of Gerhard's Loci theologici, iv. 60 sqq., Tubingen, 1762-88; J. E. I. Walch, Binleitung in die Religionstreitigkevten, i. 206, Jena, 1733; F. C. Baur, ut sup., ii. 450; G. Thomasius, Christi Person und Werk, li. 391-450, Erlangen, 1857; I. A. Dorner, ut sup., ii. 788-809; R. Rocholl, healprasenz, pp. 198 sqq., Gutersloh, 1875.
X. 1. For the Racovian Catechism (Eng. transl. by 1. Kees, London, 1818) see Socinus; J. Priestley, Early Upimons concerning Jesus Christ, Birmingham, 1786; 1. Kant, Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen ■ '^T u ^^°"'S»berg, 1793, Eng. transl., Religion within the Boundary of Pure Reason, Edinburgh, 1838; W. ^. Channing, Works, 6 vols., Boston, 1874; T. Parker, Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion, ib. 1847; A. Loquerel, Christologie, 2 vols., Paris, 1858; J. Martineau btudtes of Christianity, London, 1858; idem, Essays fhUosot>Mcal and Theological, 2 vols.. New York, 1879; ri 1 ^ ^'^"'"'^ Modern Materialism, Lonaon 1874; idem. Seat of Authority in Religion, ib. 1890;
■ ti. Hedge, Reason in Religion, Boston, 1875; M. J. isavage, Out of Nazareth, ib. 1904.
' P- ^- Strauss, Die christliche Cllinilievslvhre in ihrer gescliichlbchen Entu-icklung und im Knmpfe mit der moaernen W v:«rnscha.ft. ii. 193 sqq., Tiibingen, 1841 (a work as (Ifstructive of Christian dogmatics as his Leben Jesu s ot the evangelical history); A, E. Biedermann, Christ- »ene Dogmatik, Zurich, 1869 (more serious, but almost equally revolutionary in its results); E. Marius, Die
III.— 5
Personlichkeit Jesu Christi. Mit besonderer Rilcksi-ht auf die Mythologien und Mysterien der alien Volker, Leipsic 1881 (a strange compound of the mythical views of Strauss and the mystical interpretation of Swedenborg).
4 On the Kenotic theory: J. L. Konig, Die Menschwerdung Gottes, Mainz, 1844; G. Thomasius, Beitrage zur kirchlichen Christologie, Erlangen, 1845; idem Christi Person und Werk, ib. 1856; T. A. Liebner, Die christliche liogmatik, Gottingen, 1849; J. H. A. Ebrard, Christliche Dogmatik, Konigsberg, 1851-52; J. P. Lange, Positive Dogmatik, pp. 595-782, Heidelberg, 1851; W. F. Gess, ut sup.; H. L. Martensen, Christliche Dogmatik, BerUn 1853, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1866; F. Delitzsch, System der biblischen Psychologic, pp. 325 sqq., Leipsic 1861, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1865; J. Bodemeyer, Die Lehre von der Kenosis, Gottingen, 1860; K. F. A. Kahnis, Die lutherische Dogmatik, iii. 343, Leipsic, 1868; l! Schoberlein, Die Geheimnisse des Glaubens, Heidelberg, 1872; R. Kiibel, Christliches Lehrsystem, Stuttgart, 1873; J. J. van Oossterzee, Christian Dogmatics, London, 1878 (moderately and cautiously Kenotic); F. Godet, in Studies on the Neva Testament, Edinburgh, 1876; idem. Commentary on . John, ib. 1881; E. de Pressens^i Jesus Christ, Paris, 1866, Eng. transl., London, 1866; idem. La Divinite de Jesus Christ, in Revue chretienne, iii. 641 sqq.; H. M. Goodwin, Christ and Humanity, New York, 1875; H. Crosby, The True Humanity of Christ, ib. 1881; F. J. Hall, The Kenotic Theory, London, 1898; J. Kunze, Die ewige Gottheit Jesu Christi, Leipsic, 1904; W. Lutgert, Goites Sohn und Gottes Geist, ib. 1904.