RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Chytraeus Circumcision
and a Hebrew dictionary; it displays the knowledge of church history possessed at the time. De kctione historiarum recte instituenda (Rostock, 1563) shows Uttle criticism, but is important for the history of historiography. The Historia der Augspurgischen Confession (Rostock, 1571; Latin, Frankfort, 1578) was the first special work on a part of this period based upon original sources. The Chronicon Saxonice (Wittenberg, 1585; Leipsic, 1593), written in the manner of annals from a religious point of view, was appreciated in all Europe. In his very carefully prepared genealogical labors Chytrasus was encouraged by Duke Ulrich, and in general his historical writings bear, so to speak, the ofBcial stamp of the duchy of Mecklenburg, as, following the custom of his time, he preferred to give the result of his researches in academical lectures. Chytrseus's publications include also the works of others edited by him and several volumes of a public character; his " Orations " were many and interesting — a collection of thirtysix was pubhshed posthumously by his son David (Hanover, 1614). Georg Loesche.
Bibliogbapht: The early source is 0. F. Schiitz, De vita Davidis Chyirwi . , 3 vols., Hamburg, 1720-28. Consult: T. Pressel, David Chytrwus, Elberfeld, 1862; O. Krabbe, David Chytrwus, Rostock, 1870.
CIARAN, ki'ar-an (KIERAN), SAINT, OF CLON- MACNOISE, "the son of the carpenter": Irish saint of the first half of the sixth century. He studied under Finnian at Clonard, where he had Columba and Brendan among his fellows, and under Enda at Aran. He founded the monastery at Clonmacnoise (in King's County, 8 m. s.w. of Athlone) after 540, and died at the age of thirtythree. The accounts of his life contain much of the miraculous. Clonmacnoise became the most national of the Irish monasteries and more than half of them, it is said, followed its rule. The site is still a place of pilgrimage on St. Ciaran's day (Sept. 9).
Bibliography: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., i. 31, 468, ii. 50-61; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars of Scottish Saints, pp. 435-436, Edinburgh, 1872; C. de Smedt and J. de Backer, Acta sanctorum Hibarnica, pp. 155-160, Edinburgh, 1888; A. Stokes, Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore, pp 117-134, 262-280, 355-359, Oxford, 1890; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum et doctorum, pp. 258 sqq., 550-565, Dublin, 1890.
CIARAN (KIERAN), SAINT, OF SAIGIR: Bishop of Ossoiy, one of the " twelve apostles of Ireland." His " Lives " say that he was born while Ireland was still heathen, that he studied for twenty years at Rome and was ordained bishop there, and that while returning home he met Patrick, who prophesied of a future meeting in Ireland; he is also said to have been a contemporary of Finnian of Clonard and of Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, and to reconcile these statements his life is lengthened to three hundred or more years. He established himself as a hermit at Saigir (4 m. e. of Birr, or I'arsonstown, King's County), where others joined him, and in time the great monastery of Seirkieran arose, a_ center for the preaching of the Gospel and a large industrial community noted for its wealth, home identify him with a saint who is said to have
passed over to Cornwall and labored and died there under the name of Piran.
Bibliography: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., i. 29-33, ii. 7-9, gg, 101; C. de Smedt and J. de Backer, Acta sanctorurn Hibernica, pp. 805-818, Edinburgh, 1888; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, iii. 115, Dublin [1875].
CIBORIUM, si-bo'ri-um: Originally the canopy which, borne by four columns, surmounted the altar, but afterward specially applied to the vessel in which the host was kept. See Baldachin; Vessels, Sacred, § 3.
CILICIUM, si-lis'i-um (CILICE): A garment of coarse goat's hair, such as was worn in ancient times by soldiers, sailors, and peasants; made principally in Cilicia, whence the name. It was worn by penitents on Maundy Thursday at their reconciliation in the church. The same name was applied from about the end of the fourth century to the hair shirt worn by monks and other ascetics next to the skin as a measure of self-discipline. Cassian knows of the practise, but disapproves it as an innovation, and as tending to vainglory, besides hindering the monk in his daily task. The custom, however, spread widely, and became a normal characteristic of the ascetic. The hair shirt was worn either constantly or at certain times. Sometimes it was replaced by a girdle of the same material, worn about the legs or arms, or (after the sixteenth century) by one made of wire, sometimes with sharp points turned inward. (A. Hauck.)
CIRCUMCELLIONES, ser"cum-sel"i-o'niz: North African fanatics who appear in the Donatist controversy about 340. That they were of pagan origin (Thiimmel, pp. 85-86) can not be proved, nor did Donatist schism call them into being — they had already sprung up from both ecclesiastical and social conditions. They seem to have called themselves agonistici (with reference to II Tim. iv. 7) and designated their leaders, Axido and Fasir, as leaders of the saints. The Donatist Tichonius characterizes them as " superstitious " because of their unnecessary religious observances including things not regularly instituted, and as seekers after martyrdom; he says they overrun whole provinces because they can not live in peace with others anywhere. That they were socialistic appears from attacks upon property, the use of threatening letters and violence to prevent the execution of properly imposed sentences, and their interference between masters and slaves. Donatus of Bagse, a Donatist bishop, endeavored to make use of them against the orthodox party, and this led to an outbreak of persecution in North Africa. See Dona-
TISM.
Bibliography: W. Thummel, Zur Beurtheilung des Donatismus, Halle, 1893; and literature under Donatism.
CIRCUMCISION: Strictly and properly, the removal of the foreskin (or a portion of it), accomplished by drawing the part forward and cutting transversely — whence the name, from circumcidere, " to cut around." The word is loosely used, however, and often does not have this precise signification. Mutilations of the sexual organs of both male and female are common as general
Circumcision Cistercians