THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
diate between the rationalistic mysticism of the Groningen school and the somewhat rigorous Calvinism of Kuyper and the separatists. Extreme rationalism of the Cierman type had become so far dominant in Holland by 1876 that the theological faculties of the universities were transformed into faculties of religions, the aim being to place Christianity upon the same basis as other religions and to encourage freedom in dealing with religious problems. Among the eminent leaders of liberalism in the Dutch Reformed Church may be mentioned A. Kuenen (d. 1891), C. P. Tiele, and P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, who have worked chiefly in the fields of Biblical criticism, comparative religion, and the philosophy of religion.
In Switzerland, Beza's influence withstood for some time the inroads of more liberal types of thought. The Helvetic Consensus, embodying uncompromising Calvinism, was adopted 4. Swit- (1675) by the Swiss churches as a zerland. protest and defense against the Saumur and Cocceian types of thought. The Consensus proved too rigorous for the time and was abandoned by Zurich (1685), Geneva (1708), and Bern (1722). FranQois Turretin, one of its authors, had to contend with his own more liberal colleagues, Jean Mestrezat and Louis Tronchin, in Geneva. He was fighting a losing battle, but he succeeded in putting the Calvinistic theology as interpreted and applied by the Synod of Dort, with elaborate refutation of earlier and later more liberal forms of thought and sharp antagonizing of Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism, in a thoroughly and minutely wrought out scholastic form, worthy of the great dialecticians of the Middle Ages. His Institutio theologioR elencticae (Geneva, 1679-85) is still the most complete exposition of fully developed Calvinism and has exerted a wide-spread influence on later Reformed dogmatics. His son, J. A. Turretin (d. 1737), led in the abolition of the Helvetic Consensus and, under the influence of Cameron and the Saumur school and of English latitudinarianism, labored for a union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. He insisted that only fundamentals should be made terms of communion, and that only doctrines necessary to salvation should be regarded as fundamental. Like-minded and similarly influenced by English and German thought was Benedict Pictet (d. 1724). Calvinism vanished from Geneva, which soon became a center of French rationalism (Voltaire, Rousseau, and others). A temporary revival of Calvinism (from 1817 onward; see Haldane) found its chief representative in Alexandre Vinet, but his writings were practical rather than dogmatic. Pietism made its influence felt in Basel during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Zurich, where De Wette labored (1822 onward), was swayed by German rationalism.
3. England: The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England represent moderate Calvinism, or, perhaps more correctly, the type of thought developed by Melanchthon. English Puritans maintained a rigorous type of Calvinism, some even of the conforming Puritans being hyper- Calvinistic (eupralapsarian) in their teachings.
In the reaction against Puritanism Romanizing theologians like Archbishop Laud (d. 1644) and Richard Montagu (d. 1641) 1. To the developed a type of doctrine closely Revival of approximating the Semi-Pelagianism the Eisrht- . . \ r ^i. % -i
eenth Oen (Semi-Augustmiamsm) of the Council
tury. " Trent, commonly designated Arminianism. Both Arminianism and Socinianism greatly influenced English thought during the revolutionary period (1641-60). John Milton (De doctrina Christiana, ed. and transl. by C. R. Sumner, Cambridge, 1825) taught Arian Christology and Arminian anthropology. John Hales (d. 1656) had been converted to Arminianism at the Synod of Dort. William Chillingworth (d. 1644) became imbued with Pelagianism through consorting with the Jesuists. At Cambridge there grew up during the Cromwellian period the socalled Cambridge Platonists (q.v.), whose mysticism was based on the Jewish cabala and Neoplatonic writings. Their Christology was essentially Sabellian. The latitudinarianism of the time of William and Mary (John Tillotson, d. 1694; Gilbert Burnet, d. 1715) was due in part to Arminian and Socinian influence and in part to the syncretism that prevailed so widely on the Continent among Lutherans and Reformed alike, or, more correctly, to the changed philosophical conceptions and modes of thought of which all alike were expressions. By way of reaction against dominant latitudinarianism High-church dissidents (nonjurors) developed an ascetical, mystical type of thought and life, and a Romanizing dogmatics and apologetics, resembling Jansenism without its rigorous Augustinianism (Charles Leslie's Short and Easy Method with the Deists, London, 1698; William Law's Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life, London, 1724). Deism (q.v.) may be regarded as a revival and adaptation of Stoicism, which identified God with the nature of things and sought a purely natural basis for religion and morality. Against Deists and Arminians High-churchmen like Joseph Butler (d. 1752), Daniel Waterland (d. 1740), and William Warburton (d. 1779) ably defended revealed religion and the supernatural in Judaism and Christianity.
The evangelical revival brought about fresh combinations of dogmatic thought. John Wesley with a substratum of High-church Semi-Pelagianism became imbued with the old evangel- 2. The j(,a,l Semi-Augustinianism, or Armineenth" i^^ii^™- George Whitefield preached and Nine- ^ thoroughgoing type of Calvinism.
teenth Moderate Calvinism, with little at- Centuries. tempt at philosophical representation, became the theology of the Lowchurch or evangelical party in the Church of England. The philosophy of Kant and Hegel was brought to bear upon English theological thought by S. T. Coleridge, father of the Broad-church movement. English Broad-churchmen have followed closely in the footsteps of German radical thought; but few have devoted their attention to dogmatics proper. Their favorite field is Biblical and historical criticism. An intensely Romanizing mode of thought and life, with deep aversion