RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Dog'ma
to Protestantism and to Calvinism in particular and a strong tendency toward Semi-Pelagianism and Jesuitical methods of thought and of work, appeared, by way of reaction against aggressive liberalism and evangelicalism, in the Oxford or Tractarian movement (see Teactahianism). The Theological Institutes of Richard Watson (6 parts, London, 1823-29) has been much used by Methodists in both England and America. It presents evangelical Arminianism in a popular and effective way. W. B. Pope's Compendium of Theology (3 vols., London, 1875) is a more scholarly exposition of Christian doctrine from the Methodist point of view. The more recent works of J. S. Banks (The Development of Doctrine from the Early Middle Ages to the Reformation, London, 1901) and J. A. Beet (Manual of Theology, London, 1906) show the influence of liberal thought. John Gill (A Body of Doctrinal and Practical Divinity, London, 1769) was the first Baptist to attempt a comprehensive exposition of Christian doctrines — with the possible exception of the General Baptist Thomas Grantham, whose Christianismus primitivus (London, 1688) partook of the nature of a dogmatic work. Gill taught a rigorous (supralapsarian) Calvinism, which was assailed by Andrew Fuller (d. 1815) in several works. Fuller was influenced by Jonathan Edwards, and his type of thought became well-nigh normative for Baptists in both England and America.
4. Scotland : The early Scottish symbols prepared by John Ejiox and his associates were strictly Calvinistic, as were the writings of all influential Scottish Presbyterians for more than a century after the beginning of the Reformation (Henderson, Rutherford, Gillespie, and others). After the Revolution (1688) " Moderatism " and " Evangelicalism " were arrayed against each other. The Moderates were affected by Socinian modes of thought and had much in common with English latitudinarians. They produced no great theological works and were for the most part wanting in initiative. Thomas Erskine, of Linlathen, a layman (d. 1870), rebelled against Calvinistic dogma as immoral and inculcating unworthy conceptions of God, and taught an evangelical mysticism with great earnestness and zeal (Internal Evidence, Edinburgh, 1820; Unconditional Freeness of the Gospel, 1828; The Brazen Serpent, 1831; Spiritual Order, 1871). Erskine was no doubt influenced by Coleridge, and in turn greatly influenced J. McLeod Campbell, who in 1831 was deposed from the ministry for teaching general redemption and related doctrines (The Nature of the Atonement, and its Relation to the Remission of Sins and Eternal Life, Cambridge, 1856). The distinctive feature of his view is that not the bearing of penalty, but adequate repentance is requisite to divine forgiveness, and that Christ on behalf of humanity adequately repented of sin. Thomas Chalmers, the greatest Scottish religious leader since Knox, devoted more attention to practical problems than to matters of doctrine. His Institutes of Theology (Edinburgh, 1849) represents moderate Calvinism vitalized by a profound sense of the obligation of world-wide evangelization and social reform.
Thomas Carlyle did much to popularize German advanced thought in Scotland. The higher criticism has secured general recognition. Names that may be mentioned of the past and the present generation are A. B. Davidson, A. B. Bruce, Robert Flint, James Denney, Robert Rainy, George Adam Smith, H. R. Macintosh, W P. Patterson, T. M. Lindsay, James Lindsay, W R. Smith, Marcus Dods, and S. D. F. Salmond.
5. America: Early New England theology was strictly Calvinistic. A Socinianized Arminianism had become widely prevalent by 1733, to the destruction of evangeUstic zeal (cf. J. White, New England's Lamentations the Decay of the Power of Godliness ; the Danger of Arminian Principles, etc., Boston, 1734, and Jonathan Edwards, Thoughts on the Revival in New England, 1 The 1'''42)- Jonathan Edwards (d. 1758) Early ^^^^ American theologian to
Calvinistic "i^ke important contributions to dog- Theology. matics and may be regarded as the most important theologian that America has produced. He presented Calvinistic doctrine in all its rigor in opposition to the current Arminianism. His application of Locke's philosophy, which hitherto had seemed to minister to deism, to the refutation of the Arminian doctrine of free will (An Essay on the Freedom of the Will, Boston, 1754) awakened great interest in Europe as well as in America. Joseph Bellamy (d. 1790) in the spirit of Edwards defended Calvinism against antinomianism and Arminianism (True Religion Delineated, Boston, 1750). Samuel Hopkins (d. 1803) propagated a harsher form of Edwardsian Calvinism (A System of Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Boston, 1793). Nathanael Emmons (d. 1840) presented the doctrine of divine sovereignty in still harsher form than Hopkins. See New England Theology.
Universalism was taught in New England by John Murray (from 1770) on the basis of the then generally accepted thesis that Christ died for all.
The Socinianized Arminianism which
2. Uni- called forth the modified Calvinism versalism, of Edwards and his disciples was car-
TJnitari- opposition to the Great Awa-
and Later ^ening (see Revivals of Religion) to Types. Unitarianism (Chauncy, Ware, Buckminster, Channing, and others). Nathanael W Taylor (d. 1858) sought to eliminate from the theology of Edwards and Hopkins the features which were especially objectionable to Unitarians. His theology had much in common with original Arminianism and more perhaps with Amyraldism. C. G. Finney (d. 1875) taught the sinner's plenary ability to repent, made regeneration an act of the will rather than a special work of the Holy Spirit, and insisted upon the perfectibiHty of regenerate human nature in the present life. Horace Bushnell (d. 1876) popularized in America the views of Schleiermacher and Coleridge and presented in a fresh form the moral influence theory of the atonement.
The influence of New England theology on American Presbyterianism, resulting in the formation of the " New School " party and in disruption, ap-
Dogrma Dominic