THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
biblion of Josephus (MPG, cvi. 14-177). For other varieties of instruction the homilies, corresponding to the Diatribes of the Cynic-Stoic schools, and scholia and commentaries are evidence. These are the roots of the system of instruction in dogmatic and practical theology. There soon followed the encyclopedic productions of Chrysostom (Peri hierosynes), of Ambrosius (De officiis ministrorum), and of Augustine (De doctrina Christiana, De catechizandis rudibus, Encheiridion ad Laurentium).
During the Byzantine period and the Middle Ages the pedagogic methods of patristic times passed over into the Western Church where the influx of new peoples made necessary the use of these means of instruction. In Byzantine literature heathenism and Christianity remained in a relation of easy sociability of which the Myrobiblion of Photius (d. 891) is an example. Philosophical activity was concerned with Catena (q.v.) which set forth authoritative traditions of exegesis,
3. In the faith, and conduct of service. In Byzantine the West the concern was for a prac-
and Middle tical use of the material of science, Ages. and in this direction Augustine was
the leader. Under his influence Cassiodorus wrote his Institutiones divinarum litterarum, which was followed by the more systematic seventh and eighth books " On God, Angels and the Orders of the Faithful " of Isidor's Originum sive etymologiarum. In the Middle Ages the monastic schools and universities arose, the latter with their trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music). The De institutione clericorum of Rabanus Maurus (c. 850), the Capitula ad presbyteros of Hincmar, and the Capitulare of Hatto of Basel are specimens of the work done for the schools of the monasteries, when the monks and clergy were the leaders in the Western world. During the heyday of scholasticism appeared the Speculum doctrinale of Vincent of Beauvais, part of an Omnium scientiarum encyclopaedia (4 vols., Douai, 1624). In opposition to this dialectic discipline arose a mystical type of instruction which partook more of the theological than the philosophical, illustrated by such works as the Didascalion of Hugo of St. Victor (d. 1141), the Epistolce of Jean Gerson (d. 1429), and the De studio theologico of Nicholas of Clemenge (d. 1437).
The Reformation and Humanism created a new science through the study of linguistics and of history. Study of language gave to theology firm standing-ground and new forms and purposes, the first results of which were attention to Scripture. Erasmus (Ratio seu methodus perveniendi ad veram
theohgiam), Melanchthon (Brevis dis-
4. In Hu- cendce theologies ratio), and Luther manism and (in his maxim: oratio, meditatio,
the Refor- tentatio jaciunt theologum) showed the mation. way, followed by Theobald Thamer (Adhortatio ad theologia studium, 1543), David Chytraeus (De studio theologico, 1557), and John Gerhard (Methodus studii theologici, 1617). Interest in questions of encyclopedia was livelier in the Lutheran Church than in the Reformed, as shown by Bullinger's Ratio studii theo-
logici and Konrad Gessner's Pandectw universales (1548-49). Nevertheless the fathe* of a systematic and thorough encyclopedia was the (Reformed) professor Andreas Gerhard of Marburg in his De theologo seu de ratione studii theologici (Strasburg, 1562-82), in which the division of theological science into exegetical, historical, dogmatic, and practical theology was first made. But the development of theological encyclopedia proceeded without well-formed plans; materials and methods were not carefully distinguished. Polemics too had its influence in the unfolding, and the science divided into exegetical, didactic, and polemical theology. Historical criticism had not yet come to its own, the linguistic methods of Humanism were yet dominant, and the contests between externals and internals dragged dogmatic, practical, and polemic interests into the foreground. Meanwhile philosophy, which among the Reformers had remained wedded to theology, received new impetus from Bacon and Descartes, and a new idea of the world came into existence through Copernicus and Kepler. For Bacon, theology is a positive science, independent of reason, which, however, it takes into its service. A great step had been taken toward insight into religion and toward the formation of a new basis.
The factors which next entered into conflict with rigid scholasticism were Pietism and rationalism, different in origin and purpose, yet united in emphasis upon individualism. Under Pietism theology took on a practical-ascetic phase, it became piety. Spener gave direction to this in his Pia desideria (1675) and in the preface to his De impedimentis studii theo- 5. Pietism logici. Study of the Bible is the and Ration- foundation of all theology, interprealism In- tation is the mistress who orders all fiuential. the parts and affords the basis; dogmatics and ethics are to come from Scripture. Historical development was lost to sight, church history simply furnished a bounding line. The orthodox cultivation of homiletics seemed to Spener the greatest hindrance to theological study, while catechetics is especially important. A. H. Franke took up Spener's thesis in Idea studiosi theologici (Halle, 1718) and Methodus studii theologici (1723), as did J. J. Breithaupt in Exercitationes de studio theologico (1702), J. Lange in Institutiones studii theologici (1723), and J. J. Rambach in Studiosus theologia (Frankfort, 1723). Related spirits were Franz Buddeus (Isagoge historico-theologica, Leipsic, 1727) and C. M. Pfaff (Introductio in historiam theologim litterariam, 3 vols., Tubingen, 1723), who reinstated the division into exegetical, historical, dogmatic, and practical theology. To the filling in of these outlines L. Mosheim contributed in his Kurze Anweisung, die Gottesgelehrtheit vernunftig zu erkennen (ed. Windheim, Helmstadt, 1756-63). Through the prevalence of the Wolffian philosophy rationalism had its influence, and the works of J. S. Sender rapidly succeeded each other (1757-80). J. A. Nosselt united a view of the materials and the literature of theology in his Anweisung zur Kenntniss der besseren Bucher in der Theologie (Leipsic, 1800).