THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Die Urbewegung der Atome und die Weltentstehung bei Leukippus und Demokrit, Halle, 1884; W. Pater, Plato and Platonism, London, 1893; C. Baeumker, Das Problem der Materie in der griechischen Philosophie, pp. 210- 232, Miinster, 1890 (on Aristotle); A. Gardner, Studies in John the Scot (Erigena), London, 1900; F. J. Clemens, Giordano Bruno und Nicolaus Cusanus, Bonn, 1847; J. Uebinger, Philosophie des Nicolaus Cusanus, Wiirzburg, 1881; L. Kuhlenbeck, Giordano Bruno, . seine Weltanschauung, Leipsic, 1890; J. P. Mahaffy, Descartes, Edinburgh, 1880; A. Foucher de Careil, Leibniz, Descartes et Spinoza, Paris, 1863; F. J. Schmidt, Herder's pantheislische Weltanschauung, Berlin, 1888; I. Kant, Allgemeine Naturgeschichte, ed. A. von Oettingen, Leipsic, 1898; E. von Hartmann, Schelling's positive Philosophie als Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer, Berlin, 1869. A review of the subject is H. F. Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin, vol. i., London, 1894.
For the modern doctrine the pivotal work is C. R. Darwin, Origin of Species, London, 1859, and often, cf. his Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, latest ed., 2 vols.. New York, 1905. For the United States the theory was set forth by J. Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 4 vols., new ed., Boston, 1903, cf. his Darwinism and Other Essays, ib 1884. Consult further: St. G. Mivart, On the Genesis of Species, London, 1871; A. R. Wallace, Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, London, 1871; idem, Darwinism, ib. 1889; idem, Studies Scientific and Social, ib. 1900; G. J. Romanes, Darwin and After Darwin, Chicago, 1882; J. Le Conte, Evolution and its Relation to Religious Thought, New York, 1888; A. Weismann, Studies in the Theory of Descent, London, 1882; idem, Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems, ib. 1889; J. Croll, Philosophical Basis of Evolution, ib. 1890; J. McCosh, Religious Aspect of Evolution, New York, 1890; H. Macqueary, Evolution of Man and Christianity, ib. 1891; E. Caird, Essays in Literature and Philosophy, Glasgow, 1892; A. J. Dodson, Evolution and Religion, London, 1893; H. Calderwood, Evolution and Man's Place in Nature, ib. 1896; T. H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, ib. 1894; D. S. Jordan, Factors in Organic Evolution, Boston, 1894; E. P. Evans, Evolutional Ethics, London, 1898; F. W. Headley, Problems of Evolution, ib. 1901; E. Haeckel, Evolution of Man, ib. 1905; M. M. Metcalf, Theory of Organic Evolution, ib. 1905; J. Scouller, Law of Evolution, Its True Philosophical Basis, ib. 1905; A. Weismann, Evolution Theory, 2 vols.,ib. 1905; N. C. Anderson, Evolution of the Human Soul and the Future Life Scientifically Demonstrated, St. Paul, 1907; R. H. France1, Der heutige Stand der darwin'schen Fragen, Leipsic, 1907; G. Paulin, No Struggle for Existence, No Natural Selection, Edinburgh, 1908; E. B. Poulton, Essays on Evolution, New York, 1908.
On V. consult: (1) J. W. Dawson, Origin of the World, New York, 1877; A. Winchell, Doctrine of Evolution, ib. 1874; B. F. Tefft, Evolution and Christianity, Boston, 1885; C. B. Warring, Genesis i. and Its Critics, New York, 1887; E. Clodd, Story of Creation, London, 1888. (2) J. W. Dawson, ut sup.; H. Drummond, Ascent of Man, New York, 1894; J. M. Tyler, Whence and Whither of Man, ib. 1896; H. W. Conn, Method of Evolution, ib. 1900.. (3) C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, vol. ii., Philadelphia, 1865; J. M. Baldwin, Development and Evolution, New York, 1902. (4) E. Caird, Evolution of Religion, Glasgow, 1893; A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield, Inspiration, in Presbyterian Review, 1881, pp. 225 sqq.; G. T. Ladd, Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, New York, 1883; A. B. Bruce, Providential Order of the World, ib. 1897; G. Jones, Ascent through Christ, ib. 1900; M. Dods, The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, ib. 1905; J. Orr, Problem of the Old Testament, ib. 1906. (5) H. R. Marshall, Instinct and Reason, ib. 1898; J. M. Baldwin, ut sup.; J. T. Gulick. Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal, Washington, 1905; E. A. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, vol. i., London, 1906. (6) A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, Edinburgh, 1892; G. B. Foster, Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906. (7) A. Menzies, Hist, of Religion, London, 1895; E. Caird, ut sup.; G. T. Ladd, Phil, of Religion, New York, 1905. (8) C. H. Toy, Judaism and Christianity, Boston, 1890; E. Hatch, Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, London, 1890; A. Harnack, What is Christianity? ib. 1901; W. A. Brown, Essence of Christianity, New York, 1902.
EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST: Orientalist and Biblical scholar; b. at Gottingen Nov. 16, 1803; d. there May 4, 1875. His father was a cloth-weaver. Having been thoroughly prepared in the gymnasium of his native town, he studied classical philology, Orientalia, and theology at its university. After spending two years as teacher in the gymnasium at Wolfenbiittel, he returned to Gottingen in 1824 as repetent in the theological faculty. In 1827 he became extraordinary professor; ordinary professor in 1831; in 1833, member of the Society of Sciences; in 1835, titular professor of Oriental languages and member of the honorary faculty. In 1836 he was made doctor of theology by the faculty of Copenhagen. Notwithstanding his extensive professorial activity he found time for ample production. Besides works on the Hebrew and Arabic languages, the most important of which is the Lehrbuch der hebraischen Sprache des alten Bundes (5th ed., Leipsic, 1844; Eng. transl., from the 2d ed., London, 1836; of part hi. — syntax — from the 8th ed., Edinburgh, 1879), there may be mentioned in this period, Commentarius in apokalypsin Johannis (1828) and Die poetischen Biicher des alten Bundes (4 parts, Gottingen, 1835— 1839). He contributed also to several periodicals. These works are the product of strictly scientific researches, careful and at the same time generously proportioned. Ewald's importance was conceded willingly, and his renown was large. But this fortunate season had a sudden check; in 1837 he was dismissed from his public position because, with some of his colleagues, he had addressed a memorial to the board of university regents in Hanover, expostulating against the arbitrary repeal, by act of King Ernst August, of the liberal constitution of 1833.
After sojourning four months in England, Ewald accepted a call to Tubingen, where he worked until 1848 as professor, first in the philosophical, subsequently in the theological faculty. His productive activity during this period was confined mainly to the Biblical sciences. Among other works he issued Die Propheten des Alten Bundes (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1840-41; Eng. transl., 5 vols., London, 1875-81); Geschichte des Volkes Israel (7 vols., Gottingen, 1843-59; Eng. transl., of vols. i.-iv., 5 vols., London, 1867-74), a work of permanent value on account of its careful use of the sources. His dismissal from Gottingen having been hailed as an event of political consequence, Ewald unfortunately felt himself prompted to publish impassioned polemical writings, which embittered him personally, and drove him to a morbidly exaggerated estimation of himself. His irritability also injured him with his Tubingen colleagues, among whom he especially antagonized F. C. Baur, with both spoken and written vehemence. In 1848 Ewald, at his own request, was reinstated at Gottingen. From this time forth he labored particularly upon the New Testament writings, in express opposition to Baur and Strauss. He occupied himself especially with pseudepigraphy, proceeding from foundations laid by his earlier investigations. His comprehensive scholarship is faithfully reflected in his Jahrbiicher der biblischen Wissen-