THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
however, and none of them survived the French Revolution. (O. ZocKLERf.)
Bibliography: The Constitutiones were issued Rome, 1595 and Paris, 1634; the Pririlegia and the Compendium pririlegiorum et gratiarum, Paris, 1628. Consult: M. R. A. Henrion, Allgemeine Geschichte der Monchsorden, ed. J. Fehr, Tubingen, 1845; Helyot, Ordres monastiques, v. 401-420; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, i. 474 sqq ; KL, iv. 1470-73; Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 131-132.
FIACRE, fi-a'cr (FIACHRACH), SAINT: Irish hermit; b. in Ireland c. 610; d. at Breuil, near Meaux (27 m. e.n.e. of Paris), c. 670. Seeking seclusion he went to France with a few companions and erected a small monastery in the woods near Meaux, and also a small dwelling-house, in which he received his guests. No woman was allowed to enter his monastery. As early as the ninth century he had acquired great fame as a worker of miracles. He was thought to have effected wonderful cures merely by the laying on of his hands; and pilgrims flocked to his shrine, believing that his remains still possessed healing power. The shrine containing his remains, which was removed to the cathedral of Meaux in 1568, has been opened frequently, lastly in 1637, when some of the vertebra were given to Cardinal Richelieu. Fiacre is the patron saint of gardeners and is commemorated on Aug. 30. In France his name has been perpetuated by the fact that in 1640 a merchant in Paris who had carriages to rent placed the image of St. Fiacre over his door and called the establishment the Hotel de St. Fiacre ; in course of time his carriages came to be known as " Fiacres," and the word passed into the French language as the common term for a public carriage.
Bibliography: ASB, Aug., vi. 598-620; ASM, ssec. II., 598-602; A. J. Ansart, Hist, de S. Fiacre, Paris, 1782; Ricard, La Vie et les miracles de S. Fiacre, ib. 1865 (founded on the ASB); Grandtrait, Vie de S. Fiacre, Meaux, 1881; DCB, ii. 509-510.
FICHTE, fiH'te, IMMANUEL HERMANN : German philosopher, son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (q.v.); b. at Jena July 18, 1797; d. at Stuttgart Aug. 8, 1879. He was for many years a gymnasial professor at Saarbriicken and Diisseldorf, and then professor of philosophy at Bonn 1836-42 (ordinary professor after 1840), and at Tubingen 1842-63. In 1863 he retired from the university and soon afterward settled in Stuttgart. He edited his father's works, founded and edited the Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic und spekulative Theologie, and was a prolific writer on philosophy. In metaphysics his position was that of a mediator between the two conflicting views represented by Hegel and Herbart, and, too, in the interest of theology. His great aim was to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God. Taking the monadology of Leibnitz as the model of a system embracing unity in plurality and plurality in unity, he sought to fuse extreme spiritualistic monism and extreme pluralistic realism into what he called concrete theism. The more important of his independent works are, Beitrdge zur Charakteristik der neuern Philosophie (Sulzbach, 1829; 2d ed., completely rewritten, 1841); Religion und Philosophie (Heidelberg, 1834); Die speculative Theologie (3 parts,
1846); System der Ethik (2 vols., Leipsic, 1850-53)- Anthropologic (1856); Vermischte Schriften (2 vols.' 1869); Die theistische Weltansicht und ihre Berechtigung (1873); and Der neuere Spiritualismus (1878).
Bibliography: R. Eucken, in Zeitschrift fiXr Philosophie und philosophische Kritik, ex (1897), 1.-7; E. von Hartmann, Geschichte der Metaphysik, ii. 367-379, Leipsic 1900
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB: German philosopher; b. at Rammenau, near Bischofswerda (20 m. e.n.e. of Dresden), May 19, 1762; d. in Berlin Jan. 27, 1814. The son of a poor weaver, he attended the public school at Meissen and the charity school at Schulpforta. Later he studied at the universities of Jena and Leipsic. For a number of years he was private tutor in Leipsic, Zurich, and Warsaw. In 1792 he went to Konigsberg to hear Kant, whose transcendentalism he had now adopted. Here he wrote in four weeks his Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (Konigsberg, 1792), which appeared anonymously and was taken for a work of Kant's. When the authorship of the book became known, Fichte's reputation as a philosopher was made. After a short residence in Zurich, he entered upon a professorship in philosophy at Jena in 1794. Here he published Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre (Jena, 1794), his new system of philosophy; Die Bestimmung des Gelehrten (1794); Grundlage des Naturrechts (2 parts, 1796; Eng. transl., The Science of Rights, Philadelphia, 1869, new ed., London, 1889); and System der Sittenlehre (1798; Eng. transl., The Science of Ethics, London, 1897). Both his writings and lectures made a deep impression; but they also created a suspicion of atheism. In 1798 he published a little essay entitled Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine gottliche Weltregierung, in which he declared that the moral order of the world is God, and that there is no other God. Despite Fichte's strenuous denial of the charge of atheism he was dismissed from the university a few months later. In June, 1799 he went to Berlin where, except for a summer at Erlangen in 1805 and a visit to Konigsberg in 1806-07, he spent the remainder of his life. In this period falls Die Bestimmung des Menschen (Berlin, 1800); Grundziige des gegenwartigen Zeitalters (1806), lectures delivered at Berlin in 1804-05; Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten (1806), lectures delivered at the University of Erlangen in 1805; and Reden an die dsutschc Xation (1808), a famous course of lectures delivered at Berlin in the winter of 1807-08. He took a prominent part in the establishment of the University of Berlin and was professor of philosophy in the new institution from its opening (1810) till his death. The fruits of his academic work there will be found in Die Wissenschaftslehre in ihrcm allgemeinen Umrisse (1810 ; Eng. transl., The Science of Knowledge, Philadelphia, 1868, new ed., London, 1889); and in Die Thatsachen des Bewussiseins (Tubingen, 1817). Fichte's popular writing will be found in English translation in The Popular Works of J. G. Fichte (2 vols., London, 184S-49; 4th ed., 2 vols., 1889), including, The Vocation of the Scholar, The Nature of the Scholar, The Vocation of Man, Characteristics of the Present Age, The Way