THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
five era, and hence is final. (5) Every single sin unrepented of deserves endless retribution. (6) Character tends to final permanence, as seen in the strengthening of the wrong decision, the consequent bondage of the will, and the intensifying of the sinful opposition to God in view of punishment experienced; naturally, final permanence can be attained but once. (7) The conscience expects and demands unending retribution in another life. (8) Finally, reference is made to the long history of this belief, and the eminent supporters of it in every age. Relief from the painful conclusion here reached is sought in many ways: appeal to human ignorance; a probationary period between death and the judgment for those who in this life have not finally refused God (see Probation, Future); the incompatibility of the ultimate loss of any soul with the perfection of the Creator; the injustice of everlasting punishment for sins committed during the short span of the earthly life; continuance of punishment for a time after death, but God will finally succeed in his purpose of grace, or, on the other hand, the incorrigible will be eventually worn out with their punishment. See Eschatology.
C. A. Beckwith.
Bibliography: The subject is invariably treated as a section of systematic theology, and therefore the works cited under Dogma, Dogmatics may be consulted. Much of the literature under the articles on Eschatology; Gehenna; Probation, Future; Universalism, and re-
lated topics is pertinent. Consult further: M. Stuart Future Punishments, in vol. iii. of Philological Tracts in Biblical Cabinet, 45 vols., Edinburgh, 1838-44; R W Hamilton, Revealed Doctrine of Rewards and Punishments London, 1853; H. M. Dexter, The Verdict of Reason upon the . . Future Punishment of . the Impenitent, Boston, 1865; S. C. Bartlett, Future Punishment, ib 1875- [J. M. Whiton], 7* "Eternal" Punishment Endless? ib' 1876; N. Adams, Endless Punishment: Scriptural Argument for . . future endless Punishment, ib. 1878- E Beecher, Hist, of Opinions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Retribution, New York, 1878; G. P. Fisher, in his Discussions in Hist, and Theology, ib. 1880; E. M. Goulburn, Everlasting Punishment, ib. 1880; J. B. Reimensnyder, Doom Eternal, Philadelphia, 1880; T. j. Sawyer" Endless Punishment, Boston, 1880 (Universalist); F. w' Farrar, Mercy and Judgment, London, 1881;' idem Eternal Hope, ib. 1892; W Griffith, Evidence of the Evangelists and Apostles on Future Punishment, ib. 1882; R. H. McKim, Future Punishment, New York, 1883; v' M de Lizzi, De dXuturnitate paenarum, Naples, 1884; C. A Row, Future Retribution in the Light of Reason and Revelation, New York, 1887; W. G. T. Shedd, The Doctrine of Endless Punishment, ib. 1887 (perhaps the strongest affirmative statement of the doctrine since Edwards); J. Macpherson, The Larger Hope, London, 1890; S. Itfl Vernon, Probation and Punishment, New York, 1890; Wider Hope, Essays and Strictures upon the Doctrine and Literature of Future Punishment, with Bibliographical Appendix, London, 1890; R. L. Bellamy, The Harvest of the Soul, ib. 1902; J. Mew, Traditional Aspects of Hell, Ancient and Modern, ib. 1903; J. Bautz, Die Hblle, Mainz, 1905; L. B. Hartman, Divine Penology, New York, 1905; J. R. Norrie, Eternal Torment: is it a possible human Destiny ? ib. 1905.
FUTURE STATE. See Eschatology, §§6-7.
G
GABLER, ga'bler, JOHANN PHILIPP: German theologian; b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main June 4, 1753; d. at Jena Feb. 17, 1826. He studied for ten years at the gymnasium of his native town, and from 1772 to 1778 was a student at Jena, where Griesbach and Eichhorn were his teachers in theology. After filling minor positions in Frankfort (1778) and Gottingen (1780), and after officiating as professor at the gymnasium at Dortmund (1783), he was called to Altdorf in 1785 as deacon and professor of theology. In 1804 he was called to the University of Jena, and in 1812 he succeeded his former teacher, Griesbach, as professor of theology there. As a theological author Gabler is chiefly known by his edition of Eichhorn 's Urgeschichte, to which he added a preface and notes (2 vols., Altdorf and Nuremberg, 1790-93), also by a number of Latin and German essays, several of which appeared in his periodicals: Neuestes theologisches Journal (1798-1800), Journal fur theologische Literatur (1801-04), and Journal fur auserlesene theologische Literatur (1805-11). Some of these minor works are devoted to church history, and others to dogmatics, but the greater number consist of expositions and criticisms of narratives and sayings of the New Testament. In tendency Gabler was naturalistic and rationalistic. A collection of his essays, lectures, and Latin programs and speeches was published by his sons, Theodor August and Johann Gottfried Gabler (2 vols., Ulm, 1831), with an autobiographical sketch written
for Eichstadt's Annates academics Jenensis (Jena, 1823). (E. HENKEf.)
Bibliography: W Schroter, Erinnerungen an J. B. Gabler, Jena, 1827; G. Thomasius, Das Wiedererwachen des evangelischen Lebens in der lutherischen Kirche Bayerns, pp. 21 sqq., Erlangen, 1867.
GABRIEL SEVERUS: Greek metropolitan and theologian; b. at Monemvasia (45 m. s.e. of Sparta) 1541; d. at Venice Oct. 21, 1616. After completing his education at Padua, he resided in Crete and at Venice, where the Greek colony chose him priest of St. George in 1573. Four years later he was made metropolitan of Philadelphia, but continued to live at Venice. He was one of the most learned theologians of the modern Greek Church, whose claims he passionately defended against Roman Catholicism and the unionistic tendencies within his own communion. The first of his three chief works was the collection of three treatises on the honor due the sacred elements of the Eucharist, the " portions " (Gk. merides, pieces of bread set aside at the Eucharist in honor of the Virgin and the saints, and for the spiritual welfare of all orthodox Christians, whether living or dead), and the boiled wheat distributed to the congregation on certain days, generally in memory of the dead. This was first published at Venice in 1604. His second work was the " Treatise on the Holy and Sacred Mysteries" (1600), of which separate portions have been edited at various times. In its presentation the book is scholastic and not altogether free from