THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
than devils." A copy of the placard was affixed to the door of the king's bedchamber. The king, infuriated beyond measure, now became a violent persecutor. Margaret interceded in vain. He even went so far as to prohibit (Jan., 1535) any exercise of the art of printing, but when parliament refused to register the decree, its execution was suspended. It was reported that the Protestants had formed a plot on a certain occasion to assassinate Roman Catholics gathered for worship in all the churches. Large numbers were executed, and an expiatory procession aroused Roman Catholic enthusiasm to the highest pitch. At the close of the ceremony Francis declared that if one of his arms were infected with the poison of heresy he would cut it off, and if his own children were contaminated he would immolate them. The remonstrance of Lutheran princes and measures of toleration in the Netherlands may have influenced Francis to discontinue the frightful persecution that followed. He now (Mar., 1535) invited and urged Melanchthon to come to Paris to aid in restoring religious harmony, hoping to further an alliance with the Lutheran princes against the emperor; but the elector peremptorily refused to let Melanchthon go. Appeals for toleration came from Swiss and Lutheran theologians alike. Calvin dedicated his " Institutes " " to the Very Christian King of France," with the hope of allaying his persecuting fury. With the publication of this monumental work and his settlement in Geneva, Calvin soon became the recognized leader of French Protestantism, and Geneva the trainingschool from which hundreds of ministers returned to France (see Calvin, John; and Geneva). Royal edicts (1538, 1539, 1540, 1542) intensified efforts for the extermination of heresy. The Waldenses of Piedmont had come into close relations with the Swiss Reformers (1532). Francis protected them until 1545, when he ordered their extermination. Twenty of their villages were burned, and nearly 4 000 were massacred, while 700 of the stronger men ware sent to the galleys. A considerable number Aid to Switzerland. The Calvinists at Meaux were seized at a meeting and many of them executed.
Francis died in Mar., 1547 Henry II., who had
married Catherine de Medici, was influenced toward a
thoroughgoing policy of extermination
4. Persecu- by his mistress, Diana of Poitiers,
tions, the Constable Montmorency, and the
1547-60. Guises, who had risen to high consideration under Francis. Calvinists were now represented in every part of France except Brittany. Disguised evangelists traversed the country holding secret meetings and distributing literature. At the beginning of his reign Henry II. established a new inquisitorial tribunal, the Chambre Ardente, " the burning chamber." Many executions followed the Edict of Fontainebleau prohibiting the printing and importation of books pertaining to the Scriptures. In Nov., 1549, ecclesiastical judges were given power to deal independently with ordinary cases of heresy. The Edict of Chateaubriand (June, 1551) renewed and fortified the inquisitorial measures; so that the burning of heretics became a matter of almost daily occurrence. Just at this time (1551) Henry joined hands with Maurice of Saxony (q.v.) and Albert of
Prussia against the emperor, and assisted in saving German Protestantism from disaster (see Charles V.; and Schmalkald Articles) . Congregations had been organized at Meaux (1546) and at Ximes (1547), but these had been broken up. In 1555 following Calvin's advice and methods, an organizing movement was inaugurated. Paris led. Meaux Poitiers, Angers, Saintonge, Agen, Bourges, Issoudun, Aubigny, Blois, Tours, Lyons, Orleans, Rouen, and many others quickly followed. By 1560 there were about fifty fully organized churches, besides many unorganized congregations. In May, 1559, the first national synod compiled a confession and a book of discipline. The confession was an adaptation of one prepared by Calvin two years before and addressed apologetically to the king. The book of discipline provided for consistories in the local churches, colloquies of representatives from several consistories, provincial synods, and a national synod. No church was to have a rank above other churches. All ministers must sign the confession and subject themselves to the provisions of the discipline. For some years before the death of Henry II. several of the colleges (Angers, Bourges, Fontenay, La Rochelle, etc.) were accused of encouraging Protestantism. In 1559 a minority of the Parliament of Paris protested against the cruel proceedings of the Chambre Ardente. Four of the boldest members were sent to the Bastile. On the death of Henry II. (July 10, 1559), Francis II. being a minor, the government fell into the hands of the Guises (Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, and Francis, duke of Guise). They compassed the death of the imprisoned members of parliament. The execution of Antoine du Bourg, a man of heroic type, provoked a reaction in favor of the Protestants. The Bourbon princes, Louis de Conde and Antoine de Bourbon, and their many friends among the nobles resented the obtrusive assumption of authority by the Guises. Antoine had married Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Margaret of Navarre, who was a zealous Evangelical. Neither Antoine nor Louis was deeply religious; but the influence of Jeanne and hostility to the Guises made them willing to put themselves at the head of the persecuted Evangelicals. A fearful popular onslaught on the Evangelicals of Paris led to an appeal to Catherine for protection. As she had become jealous of the Guises, she gave encouragement to the persecuted. Under the leadership of La Renaudie, a conspiracy was formed at Amboise for the seizure of the Guises (Feb., 1560). The betrayal of the plot 5. Growth led to a massacre. Under the influence of Protes- of Gaspard de Coligny (q.v.), soon to tantism, become the soldier and statesman of 1560-61. the Huguenots, and the Chancellor Michel de l'Hopital (see L'Hopital, Michel de), Catherine undertook to mitigate the persecution. At an assembly of the notables at Fontainebleau (Aug. 21, 1560) Coligny read a petition of the Evangelicals for toleration. He declared that 50,000 signatures could be secured in Normandy alone. Soon afterward another conspiracy was reported in which Antoine and Conde were involved. They were summoned to court and Conde was condemned to death. The