RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Images and Image -Worship Immaculate Conception
London, 1900; especially Frazer's edition of Pausanius's Greece, London, 1898 (a monumental work).
II. The sources of the history of the iconoclastic movements are given in M. H. Goldast, Imperialia decreta de cultu imaginum, Frankfort, 1608; Mansi, Concilia, vols, xii.-xiv.; MPG, xcviii.-c; in the writings of John of Damascus (St. John Damascene on Holy Images, Eng. transl. by Mary H. Allies, London, 189S), Nicephorus, Theodore the Studite, and the Byzantine chronographers, especially Theophanes, whose works are to be found in CSHB. Consult: L. Maimbourg, Hist, de I'heresie des iconoclastes, 2 vols., Paris, 1679-83; F. Spanheim, Historia imaginum restituta, Antwerp, 1686 (combats Maimbourg); C. W F. Walch, Historie der Ketzereien, vols, x., xi., 11 vols., Leipsic, 1762-85; J. E. Tyler, Image Worship of the Church of Rome, London, 1847; J. M. Neale, Hist, of the Holy Eastern Church, 5 vols., ib., 1850-73; J. Hergenrother, Photius, i. 226 sqq., Regensburg, 1867; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, pp. 215-221, Philadelphia, 1874; K. Schenck, Kaiser Leon III. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Bilderstreits, Halle, 1880; F. W. J. H. Gass, Symbolik der griechischen Kirche, i. 315 sqq., Berlin, 1881; K. Schwarzlose, Der Bilderstreit ein Kampf der griechischen Kirche um ihre Eigenart und ihre Freiheit, Gotha, 1890; F. W. F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der . . Konfessionsurkunde, i. 456 sqq., Freiburg, 1892; C. Thomas, Theodor von Studion und sein Zeitalter, Leipsic, 1892; R. Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, i. 247 sqq., Leipsic, 1895; Dobschiitz, Christusbilder, in TV, xviii. 1, 2, 1899; A. H. Hore, Eighteen Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church, pp. 16, 41, 42, 265, 335-338 et passim, New York, 1899; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, pp. 38-39, 46, 65, 154, 341, New York, 1904; Hefele, Concilie'ngeschichte, iii. 366 sqq., Eng. transl., v. 260 sqq.; Neander, Christian Church, i. 71, 291-293, ii. 322-331, iii. 197-243, 532-553; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 447-474; Harnack, Dogma, iii. 159- 160, iv. passim, v. 304-309; DCB, iii. 198-205; and in general, the works on church history.
IMAM: A term used among Mohammedans in four distinct senses. (1) It is used in the Koran to mean a leader, model of character, pattern, e.g. Sura ii. 118, xvii. 73, xxv. 74, xv. 79. (2) It is the Shiah term for Caliph, applied solely to the twelve (or six) successors of Mohammed, of whom the last is yet to appear. (3) It designates the founder of a system of doctrine or practise based upon the Koran. (4) Its most common employment is to the officiant who leads the devotions in any place of public worship.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION.
Preparation for the Dogma (§ 1).
The Dogma (§ 2).
Scriptural and Patristic Support Lacking (§ 3).
Scholastic Opinions (§ 4).
The Feast (§ 5).
The doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary is a modern dogma of the Roman Catholic Church which declares the i. Prepara- mother of Jesus absolutely free from tion for all implication in the fall of Adam and the Dogma, its consequences. Like most doctrines, it was the result of a long development, and embodies in its history the story of a struggle between the Thomist and Scotist parties in the Church which was not ended till 1854 (see § 5 below). At the Council of Trent the Franciscans demanded the explicit exception of Mary in the dogmatic decree on the universality of original sin, and found valuable support from the learned Jesuits Lainez and Salmeron. The Dominicans entered a lively protest, and when the perplexed legates asked for instructions from Rome, they were ordered to try to satisfy both factions. In
this spirit was drawn up the decree on original sin published June 17, 1546. For a time the more sober-minded, even among the Jesuits, held to the decree. Bellarmine declared the object of the festival to be simply the conception, not the immaculate conception, of Mary. Petavius, while personally believing in the immaculate conception, denied that it was of faith. Even when, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Spanish Franciscans, aided by the Jesuits, stirred up fresh excitement over the question, and Philip III. and Henry IV. sent embassies to Rome, the apostolic see preserved its diplomatic attitude. In 1617 Paul V forbade both parties to engage in public disputes on this question, and Gregory XV extended this prohibition even to private discussion, answering to the king of Spain that the eternal wisdom had not yet revealed the heart of the mystery to men. But the tendency in Rome favored the Scotist view more and more. Alexander VII. called the view very ancient and pious, while still declining to pronounce the opposite view heretical. Clement IX. gave an octave to the feast of the conception of the Virgin Mary; Clement XI. raised the festival in 1708 to the rank of a holy day of obligation for the whole Church. Under Gregory XVI. a strong inclination toward dogmatic definition showed itself. Several French bishops and one German received permission in 1844 to insert the term " immaculate " in the mass of the festival. Pius IX. had a special, almost romantic, devotion to the Virgin, to whose protection he attributed his preservation on the occasion of his flight from the Vatican in 1848. While still an exile, he asked the bishops, in his encyclical of Feb. 2, 1849, to say how far a dogmatic definition would agree with their wishes and those of their people. A number of voices were raised in warning, and only three-fourths of the bishops agreed with the pope's desire; but th« influence of the Jesuits was too powerful to be resisted. Perrone had already published (1847) an extended treatise to prove that the question was ripe for decision. In 1850 Pius named a commission to investigate the question, in which Perrone and his fellow Jesuit, Passaglia, were the most influential members. It reached no result until 1853, when it reported that no evidence from Scripture was needed for a dogmatic declaration, but that tradition alone sufficed, and that even this need not be shown in an unbroken line up to the time of the apostles.
Since these views were in harmony with the inclination of the pope, he called together in the
autumn of 1854 a number of prelates
2. The (54 cardinals and about 140 bishops),
Dogma, who, in a preliminary meeting, greeted
the papal decision with loud applause. On Dec. 8 the pope solemnly took his seat in St. Peter's; the dean of the Sacred College came before him, and in the name of the whole Church begged him to pronounce a final decision on the question which had so long been discussed. The actual terms of the decree, made public by the bull Ineffabilis Deus on Dec. 10, are as follows: " In honor of the holy and undivided Trinity, for the glory of
Immaculate Conception
Immer