RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Immaculate Conception
Immer
Christ's mother whenever sin is the subject of discission, it may be shown by other passages that he is thinking only of actual sin. It was believed, however, that the Scripture spoke of Jeremiah (Jer. i. 5) and John Baptist (Luke i. 15) as being sanctified before their birth, and, although this obviously relates only to their preparation for the prophetic office, it was explained in both cases as signifying their purification from original sin. When Mary came to be placed higher than all the other saints, it was natural that at least an equal prerogative should be asserted of her. This contention is found as early as Paschasius Radbert (De partu virginis). Anselm, indeed {Cur Deus homo, II., xvi.), says that Mary was not only conceived, but born in sin, as all have sinned in Adam. In 1140 certain canons at Lyons defended the theory of her immaculate conception, and celebrated a special festival (festum conceptionis, not immaculatce conception/is) in honor of it. St. Bernard {Epist. clxxiv., c. 1140 a.d., Eng. transl. Works of Bernard, ed. Eaies, ii. 512-518) controverted their opinion as in opposition to Scripture and tradition, asserting that the prerogative given by them to Mary was one which belonged to Christ alone, and admitting Mary's sinlessness only from her birth. Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, and Thomas Aquinas similarly confined themselves to asserting her sanctification before birth; a synod of Oxford, 1222, pronounced the feast unnecessary. The belief in the immaculate conception, notwithstanding, became increasingly wide-spread, and was supported especially by the Franciscan order. The authority of Thomas Aquinas was first definitely contested by Duns Scotus (d. 1308), who taught the absolute preservation of Mary from original sin as highly probable. This doctrine became one of the principal points of controversy between Dominicans and Franciscans, Thomists and Scotists. The dispute was especially warm in the University of Paris, which pronounced in favor, 1380. The propositions in which the Dominican Johannes de Montesono (d. 1412) attacked the Scotist doctrine as contrary to the faith were condemned both by the university and by the pope in 1389, and Pierre d'Ailly and the chancellor Gerson declared themselves in favor of the Franciscan teaching. The Council of Basel (Sept. 17, 1439) affirmed it as a dogma of the Church, in full harmony with Scripture, tradition, and actual usage; but since by this time the council had taken a schismatic attitude, its decision had no effect. The papal policy, also, did not favor too speedy a decision in the controversy which so stirred the two powerful orders. Even the Franciscan pope, Sixtus IV., who before his elevation had written a treatise in support of the theory of his order, and as pope had confirmed the mass and office of the conception, endowing the festival with a plenary indulgence, yet threatened both parties with excommunication in 1483 if they ventured to accuse each other of heresy, since the Church had not formally decided the question. On Mar. 3, 1496, the Sorbonne resolved to receive no one into its fellowship who would not take an oath to defend the doctrine to the best of his power; and 112 doctors of theology immediately took the oath.
Bibliography: The subject is discussed in the works of the principal schoolmen, viz., Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, and Duns Scotus. Cf. F. Morgott, Die Mariologie des . Thomas von Aquinas, Freiburg, 1878; B. Hansler, De Maries plenitudine gratias secundum S. Bernardum, ib., 1901. In favor of the doctrine are: J. Perrone, De immaculato Marice conceptu, Rome,
1853; C. Passaglia, De immaculato . virginis conceptu, 3 vols., Rome, 1854-55; W B. Ullathorne, The Immaculate Conception of the Mother of God, London, 1855; E. Preuss, The Romish Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, London, 1867; J. B. Ferrier, La Mire de dieu, 2 vols., Paris, 1900. Against it are: E. B. Pusey, Eirenicon, part ii., London, 1870; J. J. I. von Dollinger, Das Papsttum, ed. J. Friedrich, Munich, 1892; K. Hase, Handbook to the Controversy with Rome, 2 vols., London, 1906. Of the older Roman Catholic works may be mentioned: J. Turrecremata, De veritate conceptionis beatce virginis, Rome, 1547, ed. E. B. Pusey, Oxford, 1869; and J. de Launoy, Prcescriptione de conceptu . Marioe, Louvain, 1677 (by a Jansenist). Consult also the works on the history of doctrine, e.g., Harnack, Dogma, v. 235, vii. 99; Schaff, Creeds, i. 108 sqq., ii. 88, 211-212, 549; and the theological dictionaries. A special collection of works on the subject exists in the library of Union Theological Seminary, New York.
IMMACULATE HEART OF MARY: The title assumed by several Catholic religious orders.
1. Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary: Founded at Monroe, Mich., in 1845 through the efforts of Rev. Louis Gilet, a Belgian Redemptorist. The establishment began with two nuns originally from Baltimore, Sister Ann and Sister Teresa, who assumed a blue habit with a dark veil. The object of the society is the education of the young, the care of asylums, hospitals, etc. In 1856 a branch of the congregation was established at Villa Maria, Westchester, Pa., and this foundation became the mother house for the dioceses of Pennsylvania. At present the sisters conduct establishments in the dioceses of Detroit, Grand Rapids, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Scranton, Altoona, Oregon, Boise City, and Seattle. The professed sisters number 925, the novices 144.
2. Sisters of the Holy and Immaculate Heart of Mary: Founded in 1848 at Pico Heights, Los Angeles, Cal., where the mother house and novitiate are located. The sisters conduct educational and charitable institutions in the dioceses of Monterey and Los Angeles.
3. Sister-Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Good Shepherd) : An order the mother house of which is in Quebec. Besides many institutions in Canada, the sisters of this institute have convents and teach in parochial schools at Biddeford, Me., and at Lawrence, Mass., but these establishments are subject to the superiors residing in Quebec.
4. Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary: An order of men founded in Spain in 1873. Besides the Spanish province, there is one in Africa and another in America, where the fathers conduct establishments in the dioceses of San Antonio and Monterey, Cal. James F. Deiscoll.
Bibliography: Currier, Religious Orders; The Official Catholic Directory, Milwaukee, Wi3., 1908.
IMMANUEL SYNOD. See Lutherans, II. § 4.
IMMER, ALBERT: Swiss theologian; b. at Unterseen (26 m. s.e. of Bern) Aug. 10, 1804; d. at Bern Mar. 23, 1884. A strong desire for knowledge, together with an " awakening " which he himself expressly attributed to the spirit of God, made him
Immer Immortality