THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
and employ their own teachers and subordinate pastors, who were to be confirmed by the emperor. Civil disqualifications arising from denominational differences were abolished. In German countries, Bohemia, and Moravia the number of non-Catholics in 17S2 was 73,722. By 1788 this number had increased to 156,865. The number of tolerated congregations in Hungary and Transylvania in 1783 was 272; in 17S4 it was 758. By collections in Austria and Hungary, in the empire, in the Evangelical Netherlands, in Switzerland, Denmark, and Russia, considerable sums were raised for the organization of Evangelical congregations. The government itself made efforts to establish order and develop the inner conditions of the Protestant churches. A special consistory was formed for the Protestants in Germany, Bohemia, and Moravia.
It is self-evident that such an enormous revolution in all spheres met with the strongest opposition, especially from the Curia. On Mar. 22, 1782, Pius VI. paid a visit to Vienna to expostu- 6. Successes late with the emperor; but he was
and Fail- received with cold politeness and reures of the turned without having accomplished
Reforms, his purpose. In the old countries of the Hapsburg crown the sentiment was very different. Among the bishops Joseph had friends and foes. The Febronian views of the Enlightenment (q.v.) were represented by the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as by the bishops of Koniggratz, Wiener Neustadt, Laibach, Seckau, etc., while the old ecclesiastical views were adhered to by the archbishop of Vienna and the Hungarian episcopate under the leadership of its primate. In the German and Bohemian countries the ecclesiastical reforms as a whole went through peacefully, though the changes in the cultus and in ecclesiastical ethics caused some bitterness. The political-social reforms pleased peasants and citizens, but aroused the opposition of the privileged classes. In Hungary the ecclesiastical reforms were carried out without opposition, but the political and social revolutions necessitated by the centralizing tendency of the emperor, as, for instance, the attempts to break the old constitution of Hungary and Transylvania, to govern the country in a despotic manner by State officers, to introduce German as the official language, and to abolish serfdom with the privileges of the nobility and the clergy, enraged the Magyar nobility in such a way that on Jan. 30, 1790, all political and social reforms had to be repealed. In the Netherlands the edict of toleration was promulgated November, 1781, and was carried out without difficulty, in spite of the opposition of the estates and the clergy. The other ecclesiastical provisions were opposed only by the clergy and the monastic orders. But here, too, the attempt to break the old feudal constitution, the self-government of the estates and the privileged position of the clergy and nobility in city and country, met in 1787 with the most violent opposition in all prominent circles. On Jan. 7, 1790, the provinces declared themselves independent, and the general political condition deprived the emperor of all hope of victory. Disappointed and defeated he died the following month. There is no doubt that the impatience and haste of his reforms
greatly injured his work, and yet his reign became the starting-point for a new and higher development of Austria. The system of ecclesiastical legislation continued after his death, except that in the Netherlands his brother and successor Leopold was compelled to sacrifice all ecclesiastical innovations, even the edict of toleration, in order to regain his provinces. In Hungary and Transylvania the main bulk of the ecclesiastical reforms, and especially the edict of toleration, remained in force. In Austria most of the estates required the restitution of the old feudal conditions and the old domination of the Roman Catholic Church; but Leopold refused both. Of the ecclesiastical legislation only the " general seminaries " were discontinued. The bishops were allowed to erect their own institutions and to dispose of the order of church service. The great mass of reforms within the Church remained until 1848. At the time of Napoleon I. Josephinism extended over all the South German states, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hesse. It was only in 1848 that it was entirely broken in Austria, as well as in the South German states. Only the edict of toleration remained in force in Austria, and was embodied in the constitution.
(Karl Mullee.)
Bibliography: Sources are: A. von Arneth, Maria Theresia und Joseph II., ihre Korrespondenz, 3 vols., Vienna, 1867; J. Kropatschek, Handbuch . Verordnungen und Gesetze, 19 vols., Vienna, 1785-91; Codex juris ecclesiastics Josephini, 2 vols., Presburg, 1788; Sammlung der Verordnungen und Gesetze Kaisers Joseph II., 10 vols., Vienna, 1788. Consult: K. Ritter, Kaiser Joseph und seine kirchlichen Reformen, 2 vols., Regensburg, 1867; S. Brunner, Die theologische Dienerschaft am Hofe Josephs II., Vienna, 1868; idem, Die Mysterien der Aufklarung in Oesterreich 1770-1800, ib. 1869; T. von Kern, Die Reformen der Kaiserin Maria Theresia, Leipsic, 1869; A. Wolf, Die Aufhebung der Klbster in Innerosterreich, Vienna, 1871; idem, Oesterreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II., und Leopold II., Berlin, 1883; E. Friedberg, Die Grenzen zwischen Staat und Kirche, Tubingen, 1872; A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresia, ix. 1-260, Vienna, 1879; C. von Hock, Der osterreichische Staatsrath 1760-1848, ib., 1879; E. Hubert, La Condition des protestants en Belgique depuis Charles V. jusqua Joseph II., Brussels, 1882; G. Frank, Das Toleranzpatent Kaisers Joseph II., Vienna, 1882; L. Leger, Hist, of Austro-H ungary, London, 1889; H. Schlitter, Die Regierung Josefs II., vol. i., Vienna, 1900; F Frishc, Kaiser Joseph II., ib. 1903; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, New York, 1904; F. Geier, Die Durchfuhrung der kirchlichen Reformen Josephs II., Stuttgart, 1905; E. Gothein, Der Breisgau unter Maria Theresia und Joseph II., Heidelberg, 1907; H. Franz, Studien zur kirchlichen Reform Josephs II., 1908.
JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS. I. Life. II. Works.
" Jewish War " and " Antiquities " (§ 1). Remaining Works (§ 2). Editions (§ 3). I. Life: Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian, was born in the first year of the reign of Caligula, 37-38 a.d.; d. at Rome after 100 a.d. His father Matthias belonged to a respected family of priests in Jerusalem. Josephus reports proudly that at the age of sixteen he went through the three " philosophical schools " of the Jews, those of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, and that for the next three years he lived with a hermit named Banus At the age of nineteen he publicly joined the Pharisees {Vita, i.-ii.). In 64 a.d. he undertook a journey