RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
liightfoot Liguori
the fourth century on. The base is ornamented in relief, both of a secular and religious character (V. Schultze, Archaologie der altchristlichen Kunst, pp. 292 sqq., Munich, 1895; M. Bauer, Der Bilderschmuck friihchristlicher Thonlampen, Greifswald, 1907). On the other hand the bronze lamps, preserved from Christian antiquity and distinguished by more graceful forms and a more artistic conception, must, in part, have served for ecclesiastical purposes. A complete change shows itself in the Middle Ages; lamps were not indeed entirely abandoned, but candlesticks, brackets, and candelabra took their place. The forms reflected the influence of Roman and Gothic art. The candlesticks with several, sometimes even with seven, branches are more impressive. For a brighter illumination of churches chandeliers were used at an early period. Prominent examples of this style are found in Hildesheim, Combourg, Aix-la-Chapelle, and other places. In the Gothic period the candelabra and chandeliers became more ornamental and more subject to the influence of architectural form; the Renaissance secularized the traditional forms. At the present day, in sympathy with the reaction in favor of medieval architecture, there is a return to the older designs. The Reformed Churches, from the beginning, rejected the use of altar-lights as papistical, while the Lutheran Church maintained the custom as it was.
Victor Schultze.
Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, VIII., vi. 21, XI., iv. 14; XII., iv. 4; XVI., iv. 17; XX., viii. 5; XXIII., ii. 6; F. Bock, Der Kronleuchter des Kaisers Friedrich Barbarossa, Leipsic, 1864; W. Muhlbauer, Geschichte und Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen, Augsburg, 1874; C. Cahier, Nouveaux melanges d'archeologie, pp. 188-228, Paris, 1875; V. Schultze, Die Katakomben, pp. 488 sqq., Leipsic, 1882; H. Otte, Handbuch der kirchlichen Kunstarchaologie, i. 156 sqq., Leipsic, 1883; C. Rohault de Fleury, La Messe, vi. 1-58, 8 vols., Paris, 1883-89; V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen Liturgik, i. 666 sqq., Freiburg, 1887; S. Beissel, Kunst und Liturgie in Italien, pp. 247 sqq., Freiburg, 1899; H. Theilar, The Candle as a Symbol and Sacramental in the Catholic Church, New York, 1909; DC A, ii. 993-998, 1564.
LIGUORI, li"gu-o'ri, ALFONSO MARIA DI, AND THE REDEMPTORIST ORDER.
I. Alfonso Maria di Liguori. Early Life (§ 1).
Foundation of the Redemptorist Order (§ 2). Episcopate and Later Life (§3). Moral, Pastoral, and Ascetic Works (§ 4). Dogmatic, Apologetic, and Homiletic Works (§ 5). II. The Redemptorist Order. Early History (§ 1). Spread in Northern Europe (§ 2). Present Status (§ 3). Redemptorists in America (§ 4).
I. Alfonso Maria di Liguori. Alfonso Maria di
Liguori, commonly known as St. Alphonsus, the
most influential Roman Catholic moralist of the
eighteenth century, was born at Marianella, a
suburb of Naples, Sept. 27. 1696, and died near
Nocera (8 m. n.w. of Salerno) Aug. 1, 1787. The
third son of well-born and pious pa-
i. Early rents, he received an excellent educa-
Life. tion at the hands of the Oratorians.
His progress in philosophical and legal
studies was such that he took his doctor's degree
at the age of seventeen, and began to practise law
with every prospect of a brilliant career; but he deserted it in 1723 to prepare for the priesthood, which he received on Dec. 21, 1726, after a year spent in the Neapolitan house of the Propaganda. In 1729 he entered the Chinese College under the same direction, and devoted himself to the life of a missioner in southern Italy, founding pious associations to be directed by catechists appointed by himself. This part of his life was marked by visions and revelations, one of which, through a nun at Scala near Amalfi, directed him not to return to Naples, but to remain where he was for the purpose of founding a new order of mission-priests in aid of neglected souls. In pursuance of this admonition he proceeded (Nov. 9, 1732) to found the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer.
The new order was confined to the small town of Scala for two years, and its very existence was threatened by attacks from various quarters. The Propaganda expelled Liguori as a rest- 2. Founda- less innovator, and the archbishop of tion of the Naples spoke unfavorably of the new Redempto- undertaking. Only two of Liguori's rist Order, original companions remained steadfast; but he went forward undiscouraged, and soon was able to establish a second house at Villa Schiavi in the diocese of Cajazzo, and a third (1735) at Ciorani in that of Salerno. The vows were first solemnly taken on July 21, 1742, when Liguori was unanimously elected superiorgeneral for life. Papal confirmation was given by Benedict XIV (Feb. 25, 1749), though the Neapolitan government refused to accept the brief. The order made rapid progress, especially in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, where the founder was unwearied in missionary labors, his influence being seen not only in the foundation of new houses, but also in the winning of various classes of the community — the clergy, secular and regular, the nobility, the laboring classes, and even the prisoners in the jails — to participation in his spiritual exercises. He won his power over them partly by his ardent devotion and by the skilful tactics employed in his missions, and partly by mild treatment of penitents in the confessional, together with the habit of encouraging them to frequent reception of the Sacrament, both of which points were contrary to the rigorist practise of that part of the Italian clergy which was inclined to Jansenistic views.
In 1762, much against his will, Liguori was named by Pope Clement XIII. to the bishopric of Sant' Agata de' Goti. He turned over the direction of his congregation to a vicar-general, Andrea Villani, and applied his zeal to the care of his 3. Episco- diocese, using every means to promote pate and piety and education within it for thir- Later Life, teen years, until, on the ground of failing health, Pius VI. relieved him of the burden of the episcopate in 1775, after which he lived in ascetic retirement and poverty, refusing his episcopal pension, in the house of his order at San Michele de' Pagani near Nocera. His later years were troubled by a division in his order arising from the discord between the liberal Neapolitan govern-
Liguori Lilith