THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lege, known as The Shantung Union College, which was removed to Wei-Hsien in 1904. He was its president till 1895. He also had a church at Teng Chow down to 1906.
He was a missionary of the grand type, devoted to his work, a master of the language of the people he lived among and for whom he lived, and willing to be spent in their service, for he was home on furlough only three times. He was an extraordinarily versatile man, learning easily whatever he studied and able to impart his knowledge or turn it to practical account. Thus he was very skilful in the use of tools, understood machinery, even the latest application of electricity, and made much of the apparatus used in the college. In 1870 he was superintendent of the American Presbyterian Mission Press in Shanghai. At the same time he was a born teacher, writing text-books in mathematics and the famous " Lessons in Mandarin " which are widely used. Besides administering a college and preaching regularly and eloquently both in Chinese and English he was chairman of the committee for the revision of the Mandarin translation of the Bible, Mandarin being the dialect of Shantung. The New Testament was taken in hand in 1890 and finished in 1906, when the Old Testament was at once taken up but only the book of Genesis and part of the Psalms had been revised at his death. This labor was his last. He had been doing it at Chefoo, where he was spending the summer. As he had been suffering from dysentery he concluded that it would be better on his way back to Wei-Hsien to stop at the German hospital at Tsingtau for treatment. This he did, but his disease had passed beyond cure.
He was twice married, but had no children. His first wife was Miss Julia A. Brown of Delaware, O., whom he married in 1863 and who died in 1898. She was a most efficient coadjutor in educational work. His second wife was Miss Ada Haven, at the time of her marriage in 1900 a missionary of the American Board at Peking. She was equally helpful in his literary work.
MATERIALISM.
Origin in Greek Philosophy (§ 1).
Monistic Materialism (§ 2).
Dualistic Materialism (§3).
Mechanical and Organic Materialism (§ 4).
Mechanical View in Modern Philosophy (§ 5).
Weakness of the Theory (§ 6).
By the term materialism is usually meant the metaphysical view that the basis of everything that exists is matter, or that nothing except matter exists. Materialism seems to have been historically earlier than its opposite, spiriti. Origin ualism (see Idealism), or than the in Greek dualism which recognizes both matter Philosophy, and spirit (see Descartes, Rene). Thus, in the oldest Greek philosophy is found the assumption that everything originated from a primary matter, and that all phenomena are but transformations of this, and shall one day return to it again, after which new changes will begin, and so on ad infinitum. The concept of spirit, as an object of interior perception, and still more of spirit as a cosmic principle, came later. And even where, as with Anaxagoras, spirit appears as the
creator of the world, it may be taken as materially conceived. Plato is the first to reach the concept of an absolutely immaterial cosmic principle. With him the spiritual or intelligible world is of a higher order than the world of phenomena cognizable by the senses, which comes into being through the operation of the former. While all true materialism is in a sense monistic, recognizing but a single principle as the essence of the world, this essence may differentiate itself into a finer and a coarser matter, and one of these may influence the other. Greek philosophy begins with a strictly monistic materialism; Thales recognizes water, Anaximenes fire, as the source of all things. But in Heraclitus, although all phenomena are transformations of the principle of fire, and although the Logos which brings harmony out of all is not a second principle but immanent in matter, yet fire itself is opposed, as a finer and more spiritual element, to two coarser ones, water and earth, developed indeed out of itself. This dualistic view was more fully worked out later by the Stoics.
Speaking generally, the materialism of modern times, descending from Hobbes and winning adherents at first more in France than in England or Germany, has been monistic, in so far as all spiritual
processes are conceived merely as 2. Monistic functions of matter. This view was Materialism, set forth by Lamettrie (1709-51),
whose best-known work is L'Homme machine (Leyden, 1748; new ed., Paris, 1865), and by Holbach in the Systkme de la nature (see Deism, II., § 3). The great Encyclopedic (see Encyclopedists) was to a large extent a product of materialism, although Positivism (q.v.), which is often confused with it, contributes its share. Germany produced many monistic materialists in the nineteenth century. The most heated controversy broke out about the middle of that century owing to the publication of a lecture by the physiologist Rudolf Wagner, Ueber Menschenschopfung und Seelensubstanz (Gottingen, 1854), to which Karl Voigt replied in his once famous satirical pamphlet Kohlerglaube und Wissenschaft (ib. 1854). To the further spread of materialistic views the principal contributors were Jakob Moleschott, especially in his Der Kreislauf des Lebens (5th ed., Mainz, 1876- 1885), and Ludwig Biichner with his popular treatise Kraft und Stoff (1855; 21st ed., Leipsic, 1904; Eng. transl., Force and Matter, London, 1864). Biichner did more for the spread of this view than Ludwig Feuerbach (q.v.), who is often classed as a materialist, or than David Friedrich Strauss (q.v.), who in Der alte und der neue Glaube (Leipsic, 1S72; Eng. transl., The Old Faith and the New, London and New York, 1873) leans strongly toward materialism without being able wholly to free himself from Hegelian pantheism. Systems more or less akin to materialism have been set forth in more recent times by Heinrich Czolbe and Eugen Diihring, without winning any wide following; and a comparatively moderate essay in the same direction is found in Du Bois-Reymond's well-known lecture Ueber die Grenzen des Naturcrkcnnens (Leipsic, 1872) and his book Die sieben Wcltratsel (ib. 18S2). Less moderate is the much-discussed work of Ernst