THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
metaphysical discussion proved an orchard which bore apples of discord. Mutazilites denied in deity the existence of attributes and did not allow the truth of predestination; Jabarites were content to deny predestination; Sifatites maintained the existence of attributes and through it became the supporters of the rankest of anthropomorphic doctrines. Some sects, again, would interpret the Koran literally; others insist upon a thoroughgoing metaphorical exegesis; some again use here the literal, there the metaphorical, and are by both the others charged with inconsistency. The literalists descended to anthropomorphism; the metaphorists read Allah out of the world except as pantheism makes room for him. And yet the marvel is, that while a deadly hatred exists between Shiite and Sunnite, both unite in even a bitterer hostility to the " infidel " who denies the tenets of Islam. From the standpoints of Christianity and of missions, Islam presents perhaps the most difficult problem which they have to meet.
Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: The literature on the subject is enormous. An authoritative bibliography of some of the phases is given in the indispensable volume of D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory, pp. 358-367, New York, 1903. On the founder consult: the lives by W. Muir, 4 vols., London, 1858-61 (the classic; contains valuable introduction and notes; an abridged ed., Life of Mohammed from Original Sources, appeared, ib. 1877, and still further abridged, 1887); Syed Ameer Ali, London, 1873, cf. his Life and Teachings of Mohammed, ib. 1881; A. Sprenger, 3 vols., Berlin, 1861-69; T. Noldeke, Hanover, 1863, cf. his Sketches from Eastern History, chap, ii., London, 1892; W Irving, under title Lives of Mahomet and his Successors, New York, 1849-50, often reissued. The preceding are of importance. Further literature on Mohammed is: G. Weil, Mohammed der Prophet, Stuttgart, 1844; B. Saint-Hilaire, Mahomet et le Goran, Paris, 1865; R. B. Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, London, 1874; J. Wellhausen, Muhammad in Medina, Berlin, 1882; R. Krehl, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammeds, Leipsic, 1884; W. Koelle, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, London, 1889; H. P. Smith, The Bible and Islam, chap, i., New York, 1897; H. Grimme, Mohammed, new ed., Minister, 1904; D. S. Margoliouth, Mahomet and the Rise of Islam, London, 1905; R. Ducasse, Mahomet dans son temps, Geneva, 1909; Ibn Saad, Biographien Muhammads, ed. E. Sachau, vols, i.-ii., Leyden, 1905-09. The works on the Koran and on the religion usually contain sketches of the life of the founder.
Of the Koran the best ed. is that by G. Fluegel, Leipsic, 1834, often reprinted. Of English translations the best are by E. H. Palmer, in SBE, vols, vi., ix., and by J. M. Rodwell, London, 1879. Still of high value for its notes is the rendering of G. Sale, London, 1734, and often, e.g., 1882; valuable also is E. Lane, Selections from the Koran, ib. 1879. For introduction consult: G. Weil, Einleitung in den Koran, Bielefeld, 1878; E. Sell, Historical Development of the Quran, London, 1905; and for exegesis, E. M. Wherry, Comprehensive Commentary on the Qur'an, 4 vols., London, 1882-86. Consult further: T. Noldeke, Geschichte des Qorans, Gottingen, 1860, 2d ed., ed. F. Schwally, part 1, Leipsic, 1909; W. St. C. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran, London, 1904; H. Hirschfeld, Beitrage zur Erklarung des Korans, Leipsic, 1886.
On the religion: T. Noldeke, Orientalische Skizzen, Berlin, 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1892; I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1889-90; J. W. H. Stobart, Islam and its Founder, ib. 1878; T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, ib. 1885; W St. C. Tisdall, The Religion of the Crescent, ib. 1895, new ed., 1906; T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, ib. 1896; R. F. Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Mecca, 2 vols., London, 1898 (indispensable for insight into the character and psychology of the Arabs) ; E. Sell,
The Faith of Islam, ib. 1908; idem, Essays on Islam, Madras, 1901 (Sell's attitude is polemical); idem, The Religious Orders of Islam, ib. 1908; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, i. 438-538, Tubingen, 1905 (contains sketch of Mohammed's life and a treatment of the Koran); A. N. Wollaston, The Sword of Islam, London, 1905; Die Kultur der Gegenwart, I., iii 87-135, Berlin, 1906; F. A. Klein, Religion of Islam, London, 1906. Special topics are discussed in: M. Wolff, Muhammedanische Eschatologie, Leipsic, 1872 (giving the ideas of the populace); C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, Weimar, 1898-99; T. J. De Boer, Geschichte der Philosophic in Islam, Stuttgart, 1901, Eng! transl., London, 1903; D. B. Macdonald, ut sup.; E. M. Wherry, The Muslim Controversy, London, 1905; H. Galland, Essai sur les Motazelites, Paris, 1906; E. Herzfeld Samarra. Aufnahmen und Untersuchungen zum islamischen Archaologie, Berlin, 1907; L. Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, 2 vols., Milan, 1907; W. Eickmann, Die Angelologie und Damonologie des Korans im Vergleich zu der Engel- und Geisterlehre der heiligen Schrift, Leipsic, 1908; T. N. Juynboll, Handbuch des islamischen Gesetzes nach der Lehre der schafi'itischen Schule, nebst einer allgemeinen Einleitung, ib. 1908; W. Niekrens, Die Engel- und Geister-vorstellungen des Korans, Rostock, 1908; H. Saladin, Manuel d'art musulman, Paris, 1908; A. G. Leonard, Islam: her moral and spiritual Value, London, 1909; D. B. Macdonald, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Chicago, 1909; H. R. Sayani, Hasan, Ibn Adham, and Junaid, in Saints of Islam, London, 1909; Carra de Vaux, La Doctrine de I'Islam, Paris, 1909. Consult further: H. P. Smith, The Bible and Islam, ut sup.; T. Noldeke, Sketches, ut sup., chap, iii.; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 1.; Smith, Rel. of Sem, and Kinship; and the literature under Arabia, especially Doughty. The new Enzyklopadie des Islam (in English, Encyclopedia of Islam, London) begun by T. Houtsma and A. Schaade, Leyden and Leipsic, 1908, part 5, 1910.
MOHAMMEDAN PROPAGANDISM AND OPPO- SITION TO CHRISTIANITY: Two features distinguish Mohammedanism from all other non-Christian religions, its bitter opposition to Christian teaching and its active missionary spirit. Islam is one of the great missionary religions of the world, and its spread may be divided chronologically into three periods. The first period was from the death of Mohammed, 632-800; the second under the Ottomans and Moguls, 1280-1480; and, lastly, the modern period from 1780 on. During the first period Islam triumphed in western Asia, North Africa, and western China. During the second it extended into Central Asia, India, Malay Archipelago, and southeastern Europe. Recent advance has taken place in Africa, Russia, Malaysia, and India. Islam is still aggressive and is overrunning districts once pagan. Its numbers are increasing in Bengal, Burma, South India, the East Indies, West Africa, Uganda, the Congo Basin, Abyssinia, and on the Red Sea coast. In West Africa and Nigeria missionaries know of a " Mohammedan peril."
To the modern Christian world, missions imply organization, societies, paid agents, subscriptions, reports, and the like. AH this is absent from the present Moslem idea of propagation, and yet the spread of Islam continues. With loss of political power, the zeal of Islam seems to increase, for Egypt and India are more active in propagating the faith than are Turkey or Morocco. The three currents of present progress in Africa are along the Upper Nile from Zanzibar into the Congo Region, and up the Niger Basin. Five factors favor the spread of Islam in Africa: the strategical geographical position, the advantage of higher culture over paganism,