RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mohammed Mohammedaui
the favor of European colonial governments, the growth of race-hatred against Europeans, and the low moral standards and pagan elements in Islam. All this applies, although to a less extent, to the spread of Islam in other parts of the world.
Mohammedan opposition and objections to Christianity either arise from unregenerate human nature, in common with all other religions, or spring from belief in Islam and ignorance of the true nature of Christian faith. The latter are by far the stronger obstacles, and include: objections assailing the genuineness of the Bible and its present authority, those directed against leading Christian doctrines, especially the Trinity and the need of the atonement; and objections based on the claim that Mohammed succeeded Christ as Christ did Moses. Nine out of ten of objections by Mohammedans come from the ineradicable tendency to look upon everything and interpret everything carnally. It is the task of the missionary to meet these objections, since they are not only urged orally by individuals, but are the basis of an immense anti- Christian literature, which, although constantly shifting its ground of attack and defense, continues to spread in the Moslem world, chiefly from Cairo, Delhi, Constantinople, and Calcutta, as centers.
S. M. Zwemer.
Bibliography: T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, Westminster, 1896 (a history of the propagation of the Moslem faith) ; W. St. Clair Tisdall, A Manual of the Leading Muhammadan Objections to Christianity, 2d ed., London, 1909; E. M. Wherry, Islam and Christianity in India and the Far East, New York, 1907; S. M. Zwemer, Islam. A Challenge to Faith, ib., 1907; F. Wiirz, Die Ausbreitung des Islam in Afrika, in Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, Jan, 1910; Azharul-Hak (an Arabic work against Christianity in 2 vols., published at Cairo, of which there are Persian and Urdi translations, and one in French issued at Paris); Al Hidayah (an Arabic work in 4 vols, issued at Cairo, replying to Arabic polemics, especially to the Azhar-vl-Hak).
MOHAMMEDANS, MISSIONS TO: The longstanding neglect of the Mohammedan world by those engaged in Christian work is explained by the mutual hostility of the two religions (see Com- General parative Religion, II., § 1). Yet Survey of the names of John of Damascus and lissionary Peter the Venerable (qq.v.) are mem- Effort, orable for the double fact that they studied Mohammedanism sympathetically and wrote against it in defense of Christianity. The former's " Conversation between a Saracen and a Christian " (MPG, xciv. 1585 sqq.) was long the armory in the Eastern Church for controversial writings against Islam; while Peter was the first to translate the Koran into Latin, and he advocated the translation of the Scriptures into the language of the Saracens, treating also in his two books against Mohammedanism (ed. J. Thoma, Leipsic, 1896) the questions of the inspiration of the Koran and the prophetship of Mohammed with true insight. Raymond Lully (q.v.) was the first to attempt actual missionary operations among Mohammedans; he devised a philosophical system to show to them the truth of Christianity, and established missionary colleges for the study of oriental languages. Five centuries of inactivity followed, and then came Henry Martyn (q.v.) as the leader of a band of missionary pioneers in this field,
among whom Karl Gottlieb Pfander (q.v.) is especially worthy of mention not only for his personal efforts, but for his " Balance of Truth " which impressed not merely Persia but the whole Mohammedan world. Operations have been carried on since Martyn's day by the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the London Missionary Society, the Church of Scotland Mission, by American Presbyterians and Methodists, and English and Australian Baptists, the fields being India, Persia, Turkey, Africa, Arabia, and the East Indies.
In Persia (q.v.) work was attempted prematurely in 1834 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and in 1871 the work was
taken up by the Presbyterians with Special some success, converts having been Fields. gained, with also the result of some
martyrdoms (cf. the story of Mirza Ibrahim in R. E. Speer, Young Men who Overcame, New York, 1905). In 1875 the Church Missionary Society opened work at Ispahan for Moslems, and Yezd, Kirman, and Shirza have been occupied with large results. In Arabia (q.v.) the pioneer missionary was Ion Grant Neville Keith- Falconer (q.v.), whose work has been continued by the United Free Church of Scotland at Aden. The American Arabian Mission (organized 1889) has opened stations at Busrah, Bahrein, and Muscat, and is working directly for Mohammedans, reaching far inland by tours and hospital service. It has twenty-five missionaries on the field, three hospitals and three outstations. The Danish Church has also opened work in this field. In the Turkish Empire (see Turkey), the American Board occupies European Turkey, Asia Minor, and eastern Turkey; the Presbyterian Church^Syria; the Reformed Presbyterians, jiorthern^Syria; and the Church Missionary Society, Palestine. These together count a total of nearly 700 missionaries, but until recent years the difficulties of the problem and the terror of the Turk prevented direct work for Moslems, although by printing-presses, schools, colleges, and hospitals they have been reached indirectly and a great work of preparation has been accomplished. The entire population has the Bible in the vernacular. Hundreds of thousands have been taught to read; the spirit of inquiry has been awakened, and educational institutions have broken the fetters of superstition and ignorance and to a degree emancipated womanhood. The proclamation of a constitution and the deposition of the late sultan have completely changed the attitude of the government, and by freedom of the press and religious liberty made possible work which was forbidden for centuries. The translation of the Scriptures into Arabic, begun in 1848 and completed in 1865, together with the Turkish and Persian versions, marked an epoch in missions to the Mohammedan world. Work in North Africa among Mohammedans was attempted but abandoned by the Moravians and the Church Missionary Society as early as 1825. The American United Presbyterian Church missionaries reached Egypt in 1854, and their work has spread along the entire Nile Valley with results
Mohammedans Molina