THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ideas on Church and State and on the supreme authority of Scripture which was destined to work mightily on a later age. Both on the negative and on the positive side, he stands in a direct relation to the greatest event of the succeeding age, the Reformation. It has been shown above that he was no forerunner of Luther as a Reformer; but he was one of the factors without which the Reformation would have been impossible.
(R. Seeberg.)
Bibliography: Sources for a life are: John of Viktring, in J. F. Bohmer, Fontes rerum Germanicarum, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1843; John of Winterthur, Chronica, ed. G. von Wyss, in Archiv fiir schweizerische Geschichte, vol. xi., Zurich, 1S56; N. Glassberger, Chronicon, in Analecta Franciscana, vol. ii., Quaracchi, 1887; L. Wadding, Annates Minorum, ed. Fonseca, vols, vii.-viii., Rome, 1733; H. Denifle, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, vol. ii., part i., Paris, 1890. Consult: P Feret, La Faculte de theologie de Paris au moyen Age, pp. 339 sqq., Paris, 1896; W. L. G. F. v. Eberstein, Natilrliche Theologie der Scholastiker, Leipsic, 1803; K. Prantl, Geschichte der Logih im Abendlande, iii. 327-420, Leipsic, 1867; S. Riezler, Die literarischen Widersacher der Papste zur Zeit Ludwigs des Baiern, Leipsic, 1874; J. E. Erdmann, Geschichte der Philosophie, i. 423-434, Berlin, 1878, Eng. transl. vol. i., London, 1893; C. lliiller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Baiern mit der romischen Curie, 2 vols., Tubingen, 1879-80; B. Haur^au, Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, ii. 2, pp. 356-430, Paris, 1880; A. G. Little, Grey Friars of Oxford, pp. 225-234, Oxford, 1892; M. de Wulf, Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, pp. 349-364, Louvain, 1900; G. Hoffmann, Die Lehre der fides implicita, pp. 153 sqq., Leipsic, 1903; F. Kropatscheck, in Beitrage zur Fbrderung christlieher Theologie, iv. i., Gutersloh, 1900; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 691, 719, and 2, pp. 188 sqq. et passim; DNB, xli. 357-362; ADB, xxiv. 122 sqq.; Harnack, Dogma, vol. vi. passim; and, in general, works on the history of the period and of philosophy.
OCCASIONALISM. See Malebranche, Nicolas.
OCCOM (OCCUM), SAMSON: Converted Indian, and Presbyterian missionary among the Indians; b. at Mohegan, New London County, Conn., about 1723; d. at New Stockbridge, N. Y., July 14, 1792. Converted to Christianity and expressing the desire to become a religious teacher in his tribe, he attended the Indian school of Eleazer Wheelock at Lebanon for four years. In 1748 he taught at New London, but soon went to Montauk, L. I., where he was first teacher and then preacher to the Indians for ten years. Ordained in 1759, he went two years later on a mission to the Oneidas, and, in 1766, to England with Nathaniel Wheelock to procure funds for Moor's Indian charity school. While there, he preached between 300 and 400 sermons and obtained more than £100,000 of which George III. subscribed £200. This school, later transferred to New Hampshire, became the nucleus that developed into Dartmouth College. In 1786 he removed to Oneida, N. Y., and resided with the Stockbridge Indians. He was the author of several hymns, the best known of which is " Awaked by Sinai's awful sound." His account of the Montauk Indians of Long Island (1761) is reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society's Collections, x. 106-111.
Bibliography: W. de L. Love, Samson Occom and the Indians of New England, Boston, 1900; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, iii. 192-195; New York, 1858; E. H. GUlett, Hist, of the Presbyterian Church, i.
161, 368, 388, Philadelphia, 1864; C. A. Brigga, American Presbyterianism, pp. 324-325, New York, 1885.
OCHINO, 6-ki'-n6, BERNARDINO: Italian Reformer; b. at Siena in 1487; d. at Austerlitz (12 m. e.s.e. of Brunn) in 1564. [His father's name was Domenico Tommasini, and Ochino took his name from the street (Oca) on which his father dwelt.] Persuaded by Savanarola's call to repentance, and believing that the surest road to salvation was by way of fasting, repetition of prayers, continence, vigils, and the like, Ochino first turned to the Franciscan Observants and afterward to the Capuchins, as the most austere order in which to realize his purpose. Convinced, in consequence of his inner experience, that the certainty of salvation is not to be earned by one's own performances, he relinquished past relations, and fled from Italy in 1542, after he had twice been elected vicar-general of his order. At Naples, through the Spanish nobleman Juan de Valdes (q.v.), he was approached by the combined religious views of the mystics and the Reformation. He there became firmly convinced of the voidness of ecclesiastical mediations for salvation; and in the company about Valdes, which comprised Pietro Martire Vermigli (q.v.), Marcantonio Flaminio, Pietro Carnesecchi, Mario Galeota, besides highly endowed women, such as Vittoria Colonna, Costanza d'Avalos, and the Duchess Giulia Gonzaga, he applied himself to the purely Biblical doctrine of salvation. Thus there arose an irreconcilable conflict between his convictions and the demands of his office; and this came to an open climax in the spring of 1542, when Ochino, at Venice, intervened from the pulpit in behalf of a friend who had been treated unjustly by the Inquisition. The papal nuncio forbade him to preach; then he was summoned to Rome, where the Inquisition (q.v.) had just been reorganized. On his way to Rome his adversaries' intentions dawned upon him, and instead of death or prison, he chose voluntary exile. First he found refuge at Geneva, where he proclaimed the word of God from 1542- 1544, to the local Italians, some of whom were likewise religious refugees. Then, called to Augsburg, by way of Basel, he found himself again compelled to flight, when the imperial troops forced the city to surrender (1547). The emperor demanded him to be delivered up, but the council suffered him to escape by night. By way of Zurich he returned to Basel, followed by his family from Geneva; and from Basel, in November, 1547, in response to Cranmer's invitation, he continued as far as England, where, under Edward VI., a very favorable tide had set in for Protestantism. During the years of his exile Ochino reached his countrymen with his pen. A series of religious tracts, an open letter to the council of his native city, answers to the attacks of Roman Catholic writers, besides works of edification and an exposition of the epistle to the Romans, had been published previously. There now appeared a caustic tract against the papacy, Tragedy or Dialogue of the Uniuste Usurped Primacie of the Bishop of Rome (London, 1549, reprint, 1899). This, dedicated to the young king, presents the argument that the papacy owes its existence to none but the devil himself. With the