RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Palestine
and to abundance of wild honey (cf. Deut. xxxii. 13 and often).
VI. Flora: The Palestinian flora ranges from tropical vegetation in the Jordan valley to flora of the steppes and desert. Many varieties of the present flora have been introduced in historic times. The original forest trees of the cretaceous plateau can not be determined until the forestry of the east Jordan district is more fully known. West of the Jordan small woods are found on Carmel and to the southeast, as well as on Tabor and in upper Galilee. These trees are mostly oaks (quercus coccifera and quercus asgilops), though they also include the turpentine tree (pistacia terebinthus) , the cypress (cupressus semper vir ens) , the fir east of the Jordan, and the Aleppo pine (pinus halepensis). Mention should also be made of the poplar (populus alba), mastic (pistacia Lentiscus), arbutus (arbutus unedo and arbutus Andrachne), carob (ceratoria siliqua), tamarisk, and white poplar (populus euphratica) in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. The majority of these trees grow in dense thickets, as on the upper Wadi al-Arrub north of Hebron, on Carmel, and on the southern and western declivities of Tabor. Here, too, are found the Phillyrea media, storax (styrax officinalis), hawthorn and blackthorn, Judas-tree (cercis siliquostrum) , rock-rose (cistus), furze (genista), laurel, wild olive, myrtle, caper-bush (capparis spinosa), and many varieties of willow. The swamps along the coast, like the Bahrat al-Hulah and the region of the wells near the Jordan, are filled with reeds and papyrus, while along the brooks grow oleanders and Abraham-trees (vitex agnus castus). There are no meadows, in the strict sense of the term, in Palestine, nor is it customary to cut grass for hay. At the same time, large stretches of land are covered with perennial grasses, and diversified with flowers and herbs. Among these flowers are many representatives of the liliacei, leguminosi, umbelliferi, and labiati; while meadow-saffron, hyacinths, buttercups, tulips, anemones, adonises, irises, chrysanthemums, geraniums, and orchids commingle their colors. Gardens of varying size are found almost everywhere. For the trees most frequent see Fruit Trees in the Old Testament. Under fruit trees may be comprised the Christ'sthorn (zizyphus spina Christi) with its small applelike fruits, the zizyphus lotus with its plum-shaped fruit, and the Crataegus monogyna with pulpy, deepred fruit. The region of the vegetation of the steppes and desert is the Jordan valley with the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, the Negeb, and the desert edge of the district east of the Jordan. Here trees are almost wholly lacking, their place being taken by small thorny bushes, including the poterium spinosum, and several varieties of astragalus. The broom abounds, like varieties of artemisia and such acacias as acacia tortilis and acacia Seyal; while the juniper us phoznicea and juniperus oxycedrus also occur.
VII. Fauna : The fauna of Palestine is as diverse as the flora, the mammals of northern Palestine belonging to the palaBarctic region, and those of the southern part to the Ethiopic region. The boundary between the two runs approximately from the southern end of Carmel to the southern end of the
, Sea of Galilee. The palaearctic mammals of Palestine included the roe, fallow deer, arvicola, dwarf marmot, dormouse, squirrel, ground squirrel, mole, ermine, stone marten, swamp lynx, badger, and bear. To the Ethiopian fauna belong various rodents, the porcupine, rock rabbit, steinbock, gazel, wild cat, the desert cat (felis maniculata), caracal, panther, Nile fox, shrew mouse, hedgehog, ichneumon, genet, and wild boar. Rats are very numerous. Many of the birds of Palestine are migratory, though some of them breed in the warmer parts of the country. Thrushes and nightingales are found in many varieties, as well as grass warblers, titmouses, nuthatches, wrens, wagtails, pipits, orioles, shrikes, swallows, finch, sparrows, buntings, starlings, ravens, larks, goat-suckers, kingfishers, hoopoes, and cuckoos. The birds of prey and carrion include owls, vultures, eagles, falcons, sparrow-hawks, and kites; while among the aquatic birds mention must be made of herons, storks, pelicans, flamingoes, wild geese, swans, coots, snipes, lapwings, cranes, bustards, gulls, petrels, and grebes. On the eastern border of Palestine the ostrich is occasionally found. Thirty-three varieties of serpents are found in Palestine, including the cobra and other venomous snakes; and there are forty-four varieties of lizards, including psammosaurus scincus and monitor niloticus. The crocodile is found in the swamp of the western Nahr al-Zarka. There are tortoises both on land and in the water, as well as frogs and toads. The waters of Palestine are rich in fish, these comprising forty-three varieties, especially carp, tench, barbel, silure, and blenny. Insects are abundant, as in all warm countries, and include spiders, scorpions, wasps, bees, flies, gnats, and fleas. While many of the varieties of locust, which number more than forty, are harmless, the migratory locust (osdipoda migratoria), which comes chiefly from Arabia, works fearful devastation in the fields and gardens (cf. Joel i.-ii.). The varieties of locust enumerated in Lev. xi. 22 can no longer be identified.
VIII. Roads: The modern roads of Palestine generally follow the old highways, some of which may be traced to the Roman period. For earlier times only general statements are available. The Hebrew word for " highway " does not imply a paved street, but rather the formation of a road by embankments. A road was prepared for a personage of importance by leveling the path, filling depressions, and removing elevations (Isa. xl. 3- 4, lvii. 14, lxii. 10; Jer. xxxi. 9). Such roads, however, were only temporary, and were soon destroyed by the torrents of the rainy season. There is no evidence of the existence of bridges in antiquity. Nevertheless, it is clear that well-known means of communication were maintained in Palestine (cf. Ps. cvii. 4, 7; Jer. ii. 6), this being confirmed by the building of the cities of refuge, the way to which must have been indicated in some manner (cf. Deut. xix. 13). The road was generally marked by stones set up as guide posts (Jer. xxxi. 21). The roads themselves were of great antiquity, and led, according to the conformation of the land, along the ridge of the watershed, past good springs, and through easy passes, open valleys, and firm
Palestine
Palestine Exploration Fund