RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Palestine
Palestine Exploration Fund
berias as the capital. In 1517 the Turkish sultan Selim I. ended the rule of the Egyptian Mamelukes, and Syria and Palestine were governed from Constantinople under local Turkish pashas. Their rule was marked by many uprisings, such as the reign of the Druse Far al-Din (1595-1634; see Druses) and of the Bedouin Zahir al-'Amr (about 1750-75). From 1832 to 1840 Palestine and Syria were ruled by the Egyptian Mohammad Ali, until England and Austria restored the land to the Turkish sultan. The present political division of Palestine is as follows. The southern portion of the West Jordan district, as far north as Sinjil near the Wadi Dair Ballut, forms the mutessarifat of Jerusalem; while the remainder of the west Jordan district, constituting the Sanjaks of Nabulus and Akko, belongs to the vilayet of Beirut (founded in 1888). The east Jordan district belongs to the vilayet of Damascus. Its northern portion, the Sanjak of Hauran, extends to the Nahr al-Zarka, with its capital at Shaikh Miskin; while the southern portion, or Sanjak Ma'an, formed in 1894 from the district of al-Salt and the northern part of the vilayet Hajaz, has for its capital al-Karak. The present area of Palestine, as considered in this article, is estimated at over 9,000 square miles, with an approximate population of 559,127. This population was doubtless larger during the centuries of Roman control and the early period of Arab dominion, probably the happiest ages of Palestine. In still earlier ages, however, it is improbable that the population was much greater than at present. See Cities in Palestine. (H. Guthe.)
Bibliogbaphy: The most important books and guides on the bibliography and geography of Palestine are noted in this work, vol. i., p. xvii. In addition there should be consulted the lists of literature under the articles in this work dealing with the separate divisions and regions of Palestine, such as those noted in the text above, IX.; and under such articles as Damascus; Edom; Jerusalem; Lebanon; Moab, Moabities; especially Palestine Exploration Fund; and K. Baedeker's Palestine and Syria, Leipsic, 1906. A bibliography of works in English on the subject is given in J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology, pp. 119-130, New York, 1896. More general lists in such journals as PEF, Quarterly Statements; Revue biblique; Revue de I'orient latin; and ZDPV; while a survey of recent literature is given in P. P. Thomsen, Systematische Bibliographie der Pal&stina-Litteratur, Leipsic, 1908.
For the story of excavation in Palestine consult: F. J. Bliss and R. A. Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900, London, 1902; F. J. Bliss, Development of Palestine Exploration, New York, 1906; H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands during the 19th Century, New York, 1903; P. H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres V exploration ricente, Paris, 1907 (excellent account) ; Bericht iiber die 1903 bis 1905 . , veranstalteten Ausgrabungen, i. Band: Fundbericht, erstattet von G. Schumacher, ed. Prof. C. Steuemagel, A. Text, B. Tafeln, Leipsic, 1908; H. Gressmann, Die Ausgrabungen in Palastina und das Alte Testament, Tubingen, 1908.
The following is a selected list of works dealing with topography, geography, etc.: E. G. Rey, Voyage dans le Haouran, Paris, 1860; J. G. Wetzstein, Reisebericht uber den Hauran und die Trachonen, Berlin, 1860; idem, Das batanaische Giebelgebirge, Leipsic, 1884; A. Neubauer, La Geographie du Talmud, Paris, 1868; V. Guerin, Description gSographique, historique, et archeologique de la Palestine, 7 vols., Paris, 1869-80; H. T. P. J. d'A. Due de Luynes, Voyage d' exploration a la Mer Morte, a Petra et sur la rive gauche du Jourdain, 3 vols., Paris, 1871-76; L. Oliphant, The Land of Gilead, New York, 1881 ; T. Sauflders, Introduction to the Survey of Western Palestine;
its Waterways, Plains and Highlands, London, 1881; G Ebers and H. Guthe, Palastina in Bild und Wort, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1880-84; A. Henderson, Palestine, its Historical Geography, Edinburgh, 1884; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, 3 vols., London, 1886; O. Ankel, Grundzuge der Landesnatur des Westjordanlandes, Frankfort, 1887; G. Schumacher, Across the Jordan, London, 1886; idem, The Jaulan, ib. 1888; C. R. Conder, Survey of Eastern Palestine, London, 1889; idem, Heth and Moab, ib. 1889; E. Hull, Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine. London, 1889; F. Buhl, Geographie des alten Palastina, Freiburg, 1896; D. Zanecchia, La Palestine d aujourd'hui, 2 vols., Paris, 1899; W. Sanday and P. Waterhouse, Sacred Sites of the Gospels, Oxford, 1903; G. A. Barton, Year's Wanderings in Bible Lands, Philadelphia, 1905; W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, New York, 1905; C. T. Wilson, Peasant Life in the Holy Land, London, 1906; Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, ed. M. N. Adler, London, 1907; H. W. Dunning, To-day in Palestine, New York, 1907; E. Grant, The Peasantry of Palestine; the Life, Manners and Customs of the Village, Boston, 1907; H. Guthe, Palastina, Bielefeld, 1907; A. C. Inchbold, Under the Syrian Sun; the Lebanon, Baalbek, Galilee, and Judcsa, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1907; P. Thomsen, Loca Sancta. Verzeichnis der im 1 bis 6 Jahrhundert Erwahnten Ortschaften Palastinas, vol. i., Halle, 1907; idem, Palastina und seine Kultur in fixnf Jahrtausenden, Leipsic, 1909; G. Holscher, Landes und Volkskunde Palastinas, ib. 1907; G. Cormack, Egypt in Asia. A Plain Account of Pre-Biblical Syria and Palestine, London, 1908; L. B. Paton, Descriptive Geography of Palestine, Chicago, 1908; S. A. Cook, Religion of Ancient Palestine, ib. 1909. Of cyclopedia articles especially worthy of mention is that in Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, parts xxiv.-xxjx. But none can afford to overlook the constant contributions in the journals netted above, and the Palestina Jahrbuch, Berlin, 1907 sqq.
On the Dead Sea, consult: F. de Saulcy, Voyage aulour de la Mer Morte, 2 vols., Paris, 1853; U. J. Seetzen, Reisen durch Syrien, ii. 217-384, Berlin, 1854; F. Lynch, Narrative of the U. S. Expedition to the . Dead Sea, London, 1849; Official Report (of the same), Baltimore, 1852; O. Fraas, Das todte Meer, Stuttgart, 1867; L. Vignes, Extrait des notes d'un voyage . . a la Mer Morte, Paris, 1871; M. Blanckenhorn, in ZDPV, xix (1896), 1-64, xxi. (1898), 65-83; L. Gautier, Autour de la Mer Morte, Geneva, 1901.
For the literature on fauna and flora, see under Fruit Trees in the Old Testament; Gardens, Hebrew; and the articles on the different animals of the Bible; and especially Lortet and A. Locard, Etudes zoologiques sur la faune du lac de Tiberiade, Lyons, 1883; H. B. Tristram, Fauna and Flora of Palestine, London, 1884; idem. Natural History of the Bible, ib. 1889; G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestina and Sinai, Beirut, 1896; V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Hausthieren, Berlin, 1902; C. Hart, Fauna and Flora of Palestine, London, PEF, 1904; F. Lundgreen, Die Benutzung der Pflanzenwelt in der alttestamentlichen Religion, Giessen, 1908.
For the political conditions consult: J. Marquardt, Romische Staatverwaltung, i. 419 sqq., Leipsic, 1881; T. Mommsen, Romische Geschichte, v. 446-552, Berlin, 1885; P. de Rohden, De Palastina et Arabia provinciis Romains, Berlin, 1885; G. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems, London, 1890; V. Cuinet, Syrie, Liban, et Palestine, geographie administrative, 2 vols., Paris, 1896-1900.
On the climate use: J. Glaisher, Meteorological Observations at Jerusalem, London, 1903; E. Huntington, in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, xl (1908), 513-521.
PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND: A society founded on June 22, 1865, on strictly scientific principles, having as its purpose " To help every one who cares to read the Bible intelligently, to lead those who care for it little to care for it much, to give light to dark places, and to narrow the bounds of controversy." Its aim is the accurate and systematic investigation of the archeology, topography, geology and physical geography, manners and customs of the Holy Land, The first im-
Palestine Exploration Fund Palimpsest