THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
practical, common-sense quality of mind, yet it has appeared in a veiled or partial form in several connections. (1) Calvinism (q.v.) has
9. English provided a congenial soil for its growth, and Essentially pantheistic elements are
American found in its thought of God — his ab- Pantheistic solute sovereignty and his will as the
Thought, ultimate cause of all. It is also pantheistic whenever it has identified providential conservation with continuous creation of the world, and has denied the will as the cause of its own action. It is significant that Jonathan Edwards' early notes on the mind, in which he advocates an absolute monism, bear fruit in two of his most mature essays, on Original Sin and on the Freedom of the Will. In Emmons this position is pushed to its extreme limits in his doctrine of the divine efficiency. Until a recent period the same principle underlay the doctrine of election, sin, and regeneration in the Congregational, Baptist, and Presbyterian teachings of Great Britain and America (cf. The Westminster Confession; A. A. Hodge, Outlines of Theology, New York, 1878; W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, ib., 1888. W. Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed Church in its Fundamental Principles", Edinburgh, 1904). (2) In its earliest emergence as a modern movement Universalism (q.v.) sprang from the same postulates as Calvinism, excepting that its doctrine of election and atonement was universal instead of partial. And even now, wherever the " larger hope " rises to dogmatic assertion its background is pantheistic. (3) So-called Ethical Monism has been advocated on two principles: metaphysical, a Logos doctrine in which the immanent, universal, omnipotent, and indestructible energy of God is affirmed; ethical, according to which the human will is free to realize or to reject its responsible ideals. In the actual treatment of these elements, however, the result is not unity but the ancient dualism (cf. A. H. Strong, Christ and the Creation and Ethical Monism, Philadelphia, 1899; idem, Systematic Theology, 3 vols., ib. 1907-09). (4) In the philosophy of religion the Cairds have developed a doctrine of God by the aid of the Hegelian metaphysics (cf. Hegel's Philosophy of Religion). Reality as a whole is an organic unity, the several moments of which are God, nature, and the finite mind. On the one hand, the absolute Spirit is presupposed in all finite existences, and, on the other hand, as the idea of the Infinite contains in it the idea of the finite, so the real Infinite contains the existence of the finite. Thus while the finite will is absolutely dependent on God, it is characterized by a relative independence by which it may both deny all purely finite, individual interests and aims and identify itself absolutely with the Universal Will or God (cf. J. Caird, Philosophy of Religion, New York, 1881; E. Caird, Evolution of Religion, ib. 1893; J. Watson, Philosophical Basis of Religion, ib. 1908). (5) In the idealistic monism of Josiah Royce, the fundamental propositions are that the Absolute Reality is an absolutely organized experience to which finite experience is related as fragments to an organic whole. Accordingly, the divine self-consciousness is constantly inclusive of the human self-con-
sciousness, and the individual self is an identical part of the all-embracing divine will, sustaining toward it a relation not unlike the elements of the individual consciousness to the consciousness itself. The reality thus postulated is not baldly pantheistic, since it is not unconscious, nor the Spinozistic substance, nor an ineffable mystery. The difficulties which confront this particular form of theistic pantheism center in its doctrine of the personality of God, of the world — whether it is in a true sense other than God, of a moral order in which evil and sin are real or only illusory, and of a city of God in which selves are personal and free (J. Royce, The Conception of God, New York, 1893; idem, The World and the Individual, ib. 1899-1901; cf. also F. H. Bradley, Appearance and Reality, London, 1893; A. E. Taylor, Metaphysics, New York, 1907). (6) In literature as in religion a pantheistic tendency has gone hand in hand with mysticism. Since Goethe and the birth of romanticism, it has been represented by Coleridge, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Arnold, Emerson, and Carlyle.
C. A. Beckwith. Bibliography: For the pantheism of India consult the literature under Bhahmanism; Buddhism; India; Hinduism. For pantheism in the West consult the works on the history of philosophy by J. E. Erdmann, 3 vols., London, 1892-98; W. Windelband, New York, 1893; F. Ueberweg, ed. Heinze, 4 vols., Berlin, 1901-05. Also the following: G. B. Jasche, Der Pantheismus nach seinen verschiedenen Hauptformen, seinem Ursprung und Fortgange, seinem spekulativen und praktischen Wert und Gehalt, 3 vols., Berlin, 1826-32; F. W. Richter, Ueber Pantheismus und Pantheismusfurcht, eine historisch-philosophische Abhandlung, Leipsic, 1841 ; T. B. Mayer, Theismus und Pantheismus mit besonderer Rilcksicht auf praktische Fragen, Freiburg, 1849; E. Boehmer, De pantheismi nominis origine et usu notione, Halle, 1851 ; J. Buchanan, Modem Atheism under its Forms of Pantheism, etc., Boston, 1856; G. Weissenborn, Vorlesungen ilber Pantheismus und Theismus, Marburg, 1859 ; E. Saisset, Manual of Modern Pantheism, Edinburgh, 1862; M. Dix, Lectures on the Pantheistic Idea of an Impersonal Substance-Deity, New York, 1864; F. P. Cobbe, Studies New and Old, London, 1865; W. H. Mill, Pantheistic Principles, London, 1866; T. B. Fellens, Le Pantheisme; principe de la morale universelle, Paris, 1873; A. Jundt, Hist, du panthiisme popvlaire au moyen Age, Paris, 1875; J. A. Picton, The Mystery of Matter, London, 1878; G. Spath, Theismus und Pantheismus, Oldenberg, 1878; W. Weesenberg, Theismus und Pantheismus, Vienna, 1880; W. Driesenberg, Theismus und Pantheismus. Eine philosophische Untersuchung, Vienna, 1880; G. E. Plumptre, General Sketch of the History of Pantheism, 2 vols., London, 1881 ; S. Baring-Gould, Origin and Development of Religious Belief, London, 1884; J. Hunt, Essay on Pantheism, London, 1884; idem, Pantheism and Christianity, ib. 1884; G. M. Schuler, Der Pantheismus, Wurzburg, 1884; R. Flint, Anti-Theistic Theories, Edinburgh, 1885; T. Desdouits. Le PanthHsme. Paris, 1897; B. Galleth, Panteismo, Palermo, 1897; W. Dilthey, in Archiv fur Geschichte und Philosophic, xiii (1900), 307-360, 445-482; J. A. Picton, Pantheism, its Story and Significance, London, 1905; P. Paulsen, Der moderne Pantheismus und die christliche Weltanschauung, Halle, 1906.