RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pius VII-X
Terenzo Mamiani; but in view of the conflict that soon ensued with the Curia's executive experience and wisdom, Mamiani perceived himself constrained to withdraw. His successor, Count Rossi, was assassinated, and in order to escape the tumult, Pius IX. fled from Rome to Gaeta. From that base he rejected the suggestion of the Piedmontese that he allow them to restore the Papal States as a constitutional monarchy. This was done by the French in 1849, but not under those conditions. Hardly had Pius IX. returned (Apr., 1850) when he inaugurated an era of uncompromising reaction, marked, for instance, by the incident that in Bologna alone, down to 1856, the " court of summary justice " had executed by shooting 276 " culprits."
The administration of the Papal States was now conducted by Antonelli (q.v.) on a thoroughly clerical basis. In the department of finance, individuals, including Antonelli, enriched themselves; nothing was done in the matter of public instruction to reduce the scandalous illiteracy of the land; while in the department of justice arbitrary ruling was rife. In short, the Papal States remained the worst administered political fabric in Europe, while trade and industry were in wretched condition. In the distinctly ecclesiastical sphere, wherein Pius IX., in 1854, conceived the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary (q.v.), without taking counsel of the Church, he tested the point as to how far the bishops would conform to his bidding. At the same time, in relation to civil governments, he carried most of his demands through the medium of concordats (with Spain, 1851; Austria, 1855; also with lesser German States; see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls). In Italy, however, the unification project, supported by Piedmont, now so successfully asserted itself against the pope that its several stages were completely accomplished (victory over Austria, 1859; Victor Emanuel, king of Italy, 1860; September treaty, 1864) even down to the conquest of Rome, in 1870. It is memorable that the last step in the process was achieved shortly after the momentous date when the Vatican Council (q.v.) had declared the infallibility of the pope, July 18, 1870.
To be sure, the occupation of Rome by the Italian army was by no means intended to banish the pope from that city thereafter. They suffered him the narrowly circumscribed " sovereignty " of the Vatican; and even offered him, in the stipulation law of 1871, an annual income of 3,250,000 francs. But Pius IX. rejected this offer, feigned a state of captivity, and a limitation upon his action which soon became subjects of derision; for it appeared, as in the contest with Prussia, that the Curia had grown more free than formerly in the matter of safeguarding its ecclesiastical interests. The last years of Pius' pontificate are largely filled with this contest, he himself having given the challenge in that address of the spring of 1871 wherein he threatened Prussia with the " stone " of her destined shattering. Yet even this contest (so grave in its results and not finally appeased until Leo XIII., q.v., came into power) did not prevent the brilliant celebration of two jubilees of Pius IX. In 1871 he celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his pontifi-
cate, whereby he had attained to the "years of Peter "; and in 1877 his jubilee proper, or fiftieth year in the priesthood. On this occasion he beheld the whole Roman Catholic world at his feet. Indeed, he surpassed the " years of Peter " by seven years, dying on Feb. 7, 1878. He and his secretary of state Antonelli did not achieve the restoration of the temporal sovereignty, but they bequeathed such a heritage to the following pontiff as he well understood how profitably to occupy to the Church's advantage. K. Benrath.
Bibliography: Sources of information for the pontificate are the Acta Pie IX., 4 vols., Rome, 1854 sqq.; Acta sancta sedis, ib. 1865 sqq.; Acta et decreta sanctorum, conciliorum, vol. vi., Freiburg, 1882. A collection of this pope's encyclicals was published in Freiburg, 1881 sqq., and of his " Apostolic Letters," 2 vols., Paris, 1893. A large literature is indicated in the British Museum Catalogue, under " Rome, Church of," cols. 332 sqq., and under Pius IX. Consult: MjVbt, Quellen, pp. 360-390 sqq.; M. Marocco, Storia di Pio IX., 2 vols., Turin, 1856-59; H. Reuchlin, Geschichte Italiens, vols, i., iii., iv., Leipsic, 1859-73; F. Liverani, II Papato, I'Impero e il Regno d'ltalia, Florence, 1861; A. Gennarelli, Le Sventure ital. durante il Pontificato di Pio IX., Florence, 1863; A. O. Legge, Pius IX., 2 vols., London, 1872; Abbe Gillet, Pie IX., sa vie et les acts de son pontificat, Paris, 1877; T. A. Trollope, Story of the Life of Pius IX., 2 vols., London, 1877; J. G. Shea, Life of Pius IX. and the Great Events of his Pontificate, New York, 1878; J. M.
Stepischnegg, Fiirstbischof von Lavant, Papst Pius IX., 2 vols., Vienna, 1879; A. M. Dawson, Pius IX. and his Times, Toronto, 1880; C. Sylvain, Hist, de Pie IX., 3 vols., Lille, 1883; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bucher, passim, 2 vols., Bonn, 1885; A. Pougeois, Hist, de Pie IX., 6 vols., Paris, 1886; J. F. Maguire, Pius IX. and his Times, London, 1893; M. Pages, Pie IX., sa vie, ses ecrits, sa doctrine, Paris, 1895; E. Gebhart, Moines et papes (Alexander VI. and Pius IX.), Paris, 1896; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 102— 155, Berlin, 1901; J. Fernandez Montana, El Syllabus de Pio IX., Madrid, 1905; J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, Development of Modern Europe, vol. ii. passim, New York, 1908; R. de Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850-70, Boston, 1909; Nippold, Papacy, pp. 113 sqq.; Nielsen, Papacy. Use also the literature under Infallibility op the Pope; Ultbamontanism ; and Vatican Council.
Pius X. (Giuseppe Melchior Sarto): Pope since 1903. He was born at Riese (a village near Castelfranco, 25 m. n.w. of Venice), Italy, June 2, 1835. His parents were in humble circumstances and their family was large, but such were the talents of the future pope that every effort was made for his education. His early training was received in the gymnasium at the neighboring town of Castelfranco, and in 1850 he entered the Seminary of Padua, where he remained seven years, being ordained to the priesthood in 1858. He was immediately appointed curate in Tombolo, in the diocese of Treviso, where he remained until 1867, when he was called to take control of the parish of Salzano. In 1875 he was made canon of Treviso, and three years later was appointed director of the episcopal chancellery and vicar general of the diocese. Meanwhile his talents were rapidly gaining recognition, and in 1882 he was consecrated bishop of Mantua, where he found an evil condition of affairs, made still worse by the attacks of the Italian government, which from 1871 to 1879 had rendered exercise of episcopal functions impossible. Within the eleven years of his bishopric, Sarto transformed the diocese of Mantua into a model see, and his labors
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