THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Christian enthusiasm, resulting in Gnosticism. The basis of the sect was the " Abstinentes " of Philaster (Hcer., lxxxiv.), groups of ascetics in Gaul and Spain under suspicion as to their theology, and apparently Encratites (q.v.) transplanted to the west. They had adopted Gnostic and Manichean elements, had rejected many foods as coming from the devil, and despised marriage. They, like the Priscillianists, were essentially the children of such apocryphal writings as the Acts of Thomas, Andrew, and John, and perhaps the Books of Ezra and an Epistle to the Laodiceans. Mingled with the Gnostic concepts of the Priscillianists, moreover, were pagan elements; and the conscious possession of non- Catholic secret doctrines, at once the advantage and the peril of the sect, is shown by the fact that the PriscLUianist Dictinius, later Catholic bishop of Astorga, in his Libra asserted that Priscillianists were justified in falsehood if need be, deeming that they might make themselves pass for Catholic Christians providing they recognised in their hearts the truths opposed to the Church, veracity being required only toward fellow sectaries and not toward the Catholic church. (F. Lezius.)
Bibliography: For sources consult Priscilliani quae superaunt, ed. G. Schepss, in CSEL, xviii. 1889. For discussions consult: DCB, iv. 470-478 (detailed); J. M. Mandernach, Geschichte des PriscHlianismus, Treves, 1851; J. Bernays, Die Chronik des Sulpicius Severus, Berlin, 1861; P. B. Gams, Kirch engeschichte von Spanien, vol. ii., Regensburg, 1864; H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, lectures ix., xii., London, 1875; G. Schepss, Priscillian, Wurzburg, 1886; idem, Pro Priscilliano, in Wiener Studien, pp. 128-147, Vienna, 1893; F. Paret, Priscillian, Ein Reformator des 4- J ohrhunderts, Wurzburg, 1891; Hilgenfeld, in ZWT, 1892, pp. 1-84; Dierich, Die Quellen zur Geschichte des Priscillianismus, Breslau, 1897; F. Lezius, Die Libra des Dictinius, in Abhandlungen A. von Oettingen gewidmet, pp. 113-124, Munich, 1898; K. Kiinstle, Antipriscilliana. Dogmengeschichtliche Untersuchungen und Texte aus dem Streite gegen Priscillians Lehre, Freiburg, 1905; E. C. Babut, Priscillien et le priscillianisme, Paris, 1909; Harnack, Dogma, iii. 336, iv. 133, v. 58, vi. 8; Neunder, Christian Church, ii. 354, 771-779. A considerable body of periodical literature ia indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 882.
PRISON REFORM.
I. History of Imprisonment. II. Theory of Treatment of Prisoners.
III. Penology.
IV. The Modern System.
L History of Imprisonment: In modern conditions care of prisoners coincides with care for those undergoing punishment, since now the withdrawal of liberty is the principal punishment for crime. This idea has developed only gradually. The history of prisons may be divided into three periods: (1) Until the fifteenth century the prison was not a means of punishment. " Prisons served not for punishment, only for surveillance." Penalties consisted of fines, proscriptions, and different forms of capital and corporal punishment. (2) During the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries imprisonment became a form of punishment. The number of cases in which capital punishment and chastisement were applied became so numerous that people asked whether capital punishment was right, and the idea of betterment through punishment gained adherents. But prison conditions were still horrible. (3) In the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies imprisonment came to be regarded as a means of betterment, this coming about especially through the labors of John Howard and Elizabeth Fry (qq. v.) . In Germany the old conditions perpetuated themselves longest. There was no division of classes in the prisons (not even always a separation of the sexes), no pastoral care, and neither instruction nor employment, while the personnel was inefficient and the buildings were defective. Theodor Fliedner (q.v.) gave the first impulse to a betterment of these conditions. But without the influence of Frederick William IV such reforms would have been impossible. Another laborer in this field was Johann Heinrich Wichern (q.v.).
II. Theory of Treatment of Prisoners: Present conditions regarding the care of prisoners involve: (1) Care for the prisoners during the time of their confinement. An important factor here is the prison-pastor. Every large prison has one or more ministers; in smaller places the clergyman of the community has charge of these matters. Every Sunday church services are held at which the attendance of the prisoners is obligatory. But not less important is the teacher, who gives instruction in the elementary branches, criminals being generally without the simplest elements of knowledge. In charge of the teacher a library is found in each prison. The inspector is also a factor. In Germany the military have usually held these positions in spite of the fact that they often lack the necessary qualifications. Wichern tried to introduce specially trained men from his own charitable institution, but failed. Little has been done so far in the direction of training women to care for prisoners of their own sex. (2) The care of prisoners after their dismission is also a part of the system. For this purpose there exist protective associations. Neither the State nor individual cities nor churches have done much for this cause. Associations for this purpose are mostly voluntary. An important part of their duties is the care of the family of the prisoner. For the dismissed there is secured employment, if possible, and other aid and assistance are given him though there are only a few asylums for men for temporary lodging, while homes for women are more numerous. It is to be regretted, however, that there is little zeal developed in these protective associations and their success is small, but, of course, the field of labor is a difficult one.