TIIE NEW SCIIAFF-H1CRZ0C!
tablished in Chicago in 1899 and soon after adopted in other states and also in Europe. The system of county jails in the United States still remains the worst feature of American prisons. The tendency is now toward state control of prisoners with better sanitation, an improvement in the personnel of prison officials, the introduction of common schools, trade-schools, libraries, prison journals, lectures, and the formation of various societies among the prisoners. In Europe the system of separate confinement is applied in a number of countries; in the United States the prevailing system is congregate labor by day and separate cells by night. Reduction of sentence is allowed for good behavior, and the parole system is now applied in some thirty states. The abolition of the lease system in Georgia and Louisiana marks a great advance in the South. Educative and productive labor is a fundamental necessity as a moral agent in prison. Other features of modern progress are a better standard of prison construction, the assignment to prisoners of a portion of their earnings; provision for the payment of fines by instalments on probation and the assignment of a portion of the prisoner's wages to his family; an improvement in prison dietaries; new and better principles of classification, the development by finger prints of a scientific method for the identification of prisoners, the separation of accidental from habitual criminals, the humane treatment of the criminal insane, with more effective organization for aid to the discharged prisoner. Under Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and others a new impulse has been given to the study of the criminal, his environment, and history, though criminal anthropology has hardly attained yet the rank of a science. Prison associations for improving legislation and aiding prisoners exist in several states. The National (now " American ") Prison Association in the United States was first formed in 1870, and immediately after, under the initiative of Dr. E. C. Wines, supported by the government of the United States, the International Prison Congress was formed, and has exercised great influence in Europe and the United States.
Samuel J. Barrows")". The Eighth International Prison Congress was held in Washington, U S. A., in October, 1910, and marked high-tide in the advocacy of modern principles of penology. The congress, composed of representatives of nearly two-score nations, went on record as advocating the principle of the indeterminate sentence, the theory of the reformation of the offender, the use of probation and parole, the development of colonies for tramps and vagrants and inebriates, the productive labor of prisoners and the support, when possible, of prisoners' families from the earnings of the prisoner, the development and extension of the juvenile court and other important modern principles. O. F. Lewis.
Bibliography: Of great value are the " Acts," etc., of international congresses on penology and prison reform held at -Stochholm 1S78, Rome 1885, St. Petersburg 1890, Paris 1895, Brussels 1900, and Washington 1910. Consult further: F. H. Wines, Punishment and Reformation, Sketch of the Rise of the Penitentiary System, New York, 1895, 9th ed., 1910; E. F. I>u Cane, Account of the Manner in which Sentences of Penal Servitude are carried out, London,
1882; J. P. Altgeld, Our Penal Machinery, Chicago, 1884;
E. F. Du Cane, Punishment of Crime, 1885; F. von Holtzendorff, Handbuch des Gefangnisswesens, 2 vols., Hamburg, 1888; A. Gioux, Sur le regime penitentiaire, Poitiers, 1889; K. Krohne, Lehrbuch der Gefangnisskunde, Stuttgart, 1889- V. Leitmaier, Oesterreichische Qefangnisskunde, Vienna 1890; C. Wulff, Die Qefdngnisse der J ustizverwaUung in Preussen, Hamburg, 1890; C. Cook, The Prisons of the World, London, 1891; A. Winter, New York State Reformatory in Elmira, London, 1891; J. C. Powell, The American Siberia: a southern convict Camp, London, 1892;
F. Stuckenberg, Fozngselsvmsenet i Danmark, 1660-1741, Copenhagen, 1893; C. Hiller, Die Disciplinarstrafen in den oesterreichischen Strafanstalten, Leipsic, 1894; \V. Tallack, Penological and Preventative Principles, with Special Reference to Europe and America, London, 1896- H. S. Wilson, History and Criticism: Studies on the Conciergerie, London, 1896; G. Bonneron, Notre regime penitentiaire. Les Prisons de Paris, Paris, 1897; A. Lecci, II Sistema penitenziario e il Domicilio coatto in Italia, Rome, 1897; J. George, Humanitat und Kriminalstrafen vom Mittelalter bis auf die Gegenwarl, Jena, 1898; H. M. Boies, The Science of Penology, New York, 1901; C. Krohne and R. Uber, Die Strafanstalten in Preussen, Berlin, 1901; G. Vidal, Cours de droit criminel et de science penitentiaire, Paris, 1901; G. Curli and A. Bianchi, Le nostre Carceri e i nostri Riformatorii, Milan, 1902; A. Macdonald, Hearing on the Bill to Establish a Laboratory for the Study of the Criminal and Defective Classes, Washington, 1902; M. B. Booth, After Prison — whatt New York, 1903; H. Leuss, Aus dem Zuchthause, Berlin, 1903; W. B. Nevill, Penal Servitude, London, 1903; The Mark of the Broad Arrow; or, the Life of a Convict, London, 1903; E. Carpenter, Prisons, Police and Punishment, London, 1905; P. Cuche, Traite de science et de legislation penitentiaires, Paris, 1905; E. Spira, Die Zuchthaus- und Gefdngnisstrafe, ihre Differenzierung und Stellung im Strafgesetze, Munich, 1905; A. Lenz, Die anglo-amerikanische Reformbewegung im Strafrecht, Stuttgart, 1908 ; P. A. Parsons, Responsibility for Crime: an Investigation of the Nature and Causes of Crime and a Means of its Prevention, New York, 1909. For periodical literature consult Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 882.
PROBA: Christian centoist of the fourth century. She was the daughter of Petronius Probianus, consul in 310, and wife of Clodius Celsinus Adelphius, prefect of Rome after 351. " Cento " originally meant a cloak made of patches, and then came to be applied to compositions constructed from words and lines taken from the poets and put together to express a content other than the original. The making of centos from the verses of Homer and Vergil was much affected, and even Christians so employed themselves. Before her conversion to Christianity Proba composed one, not extant, on the conflict between Constantius and Maxentius. Afterward she embodied in like compositions the story of creation to the flood, the birth of Christ, and his passion, writing in hexameters. Of course the original coloring was lost; at the baptism, e.g., the Father uses words employed by Juno, Turnus, and others. Yet it is remarkable how impressive the results sometimes are. Pope Gelasius refused the sanction of the Church to such efforts, but in spite of this the cento appears to have been much read in the Middle Ages, as is evidenced by many existing manuscripts and the mention of many more. One manuscript contains besides the cento of Proba three other works of this character: Pomponii versus in gratiam do/mini, — instruction concerning Christianity in a discussion between Melibseus and Tityrus, evidently in imitation of Proba; De verbi incarnatione, a fragment not by Sedulius; and De ecclesia. There is dis-