THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
drew and which molded his thought. If this be true, the redaction even must be put considerably back in postexilic times, since to Sirach it appeared, like Psalms and like Job, to be one of the patriarchal books of which he was so diligent a student. This would carry it back at least to the third or fourth pre-Christian century, It is noticeable that while Sirach makes mention of the king only four times, in Proverbs the king appears more than thirty times. Not only that, but the relation of nearness and intimacy with the court which appears in Proverbs is wholly lacking in the representations of Sirach. (R. Kittel.)
Bibliography: Questions of introduction are dealt with in the commentaries (see below), and also in the special works on Biblical introduction. An excellent little work is W. T. Davison, Wisdom Literature of the O. T., London, 1894. Consult further: R. Stier, Der Weise ein Konig, Barmen, 1849; idem. Die Politik der Weisheit in den Worten Agurs und Lemuels, ib. 1850; P. de Lagarde, Anmerkungen zur griechischen U ebersetzungen der Proverbien, Gottingen, 1863; J. Dyserinck, Kritische Scholien bij de Yertaling van het Boek der Spreuken, Leyden, 1883; H. Bois, La Poisie gnomique chez les Heoreux et les Grecs, Toulouse, 1886; T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon, London, 1887 ; idem. Founders of Old Testament Criticism, pp. 337 sqq., ib. 1893; idem, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, New York, 1898; A. J. Baumgartner, Etude critique sur Vital du tezte du livre des Proverbes, Leipsic, 1890; C. F.
Kent, The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their Proverbt, Boston, 1895; R. Pfeiffer, Die religids-tittliche Weltanschauung des Buches der Sprilche, Munich, 1897; H. P. Chajes, Proverbia-Studien zu der sogenannten salomonischen Sammlung, Berlin, 1899; M. D. Conway, Solomon and Solomonic Literature, London, 1899; O. Meusel, Die Stellung der Sprilche Salomos in der israelitiachen Litterotur und Religions-Geschichte, Leipsic, 1900; M. Friedlftnder, Griechische Philosophie im A. T„ Berlin, 1904; J. C. Gasser, Die Bedeutung der Sprilche Jesu Ben Sira fur die Dalierung des althebraischen Spruchbuches, Gutereloh, 1904; E. Sellin, Die Spuren griechischer Philosophie im A. T., Leipsic, 1905; DB, iv. 137-143; EB, iii. 3906-3919; JE x. 226-232.
A fine list of the early commentators is given in Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiii., cols. 801-802. The best commentary for English readers is by C. H. Toy, New York, 1899. Others are by: G. Holden, London, 1819; C. Umbreit, Heidelberg, 1826; E. Bertheau, Leipsic, 1847, newed., 1883; C. Bridges, New York, 1847; J. C. Vaihinger, Stuttgart, 1857; E. Elster, Zurich, 1858; F. Hitzig, ib., 1858; O. Zockler, Leipsic, 1866; W. Arnot, Laws from Heaven for Life on Earth, London, 1869; H. F. Muhlau, Leipsic, 1869; M. Stuart, new ed., Andover, 1870; J. W. Harris, New York, 1872; J. Miller, ib., 1872; F. Delitzsch, Edinburgh, 1877; A. Rohling, Mainz, 1879; J. Dyserink, Haarlem, 1884; H. Deutsch, Berlin, 1885-86; S. C. Malan, London, 1890; W. J. Deane, S. T. Taylor-Taswell, and W. F. Adeney, in Pulpit Commentary, New York, 1891; R. F. Horton, in Expositor's Bible, ib., 1891; G. Wildeboer, Tubingen, 1897; W. Frankenberg, Gottingen, 1898; H. L. Strack, 2d ed., Munich, 1899.
Classical Theories (§1). Old-Testament Data (§ 2). The Apocrypha (§ 3). In the New Testament (§ 4).
PROVIDENCE.
Patristic and Scholastic Teaching
(§5). Early Protestantism (§ 6). Protestant Scholasticism (§ 7).
Pietistic and Modern Views (J 8). Critical Conclusion (§ 9). Subsidiary Problems (§ 10). Supplement (§ 11).
In the wider sense of the term providence denotes the exercise of God's wisdom, omnipotence, and goodness; while in the narrower sense it signifies the guidance of the world toward the end appointed by God. The doctrine of divine providence in the Christian Church has its origin in the union of the Old and New Testament religion with the philosophical speculation of classical antiquity. These two elements must first be discussed, and then the chief stages of the development of the dogmatic teaching, this being followed by a critical and systematic investigation of the whole development in its Biblical and dogmatic form.
Greek popular mythology represents the world and the life of man as being under the protection and direction of the gods, thus affording the foundation on which Greek philosophy i. Classical erected its systematic treatment of
Theories, providence. Heraclitus gave an imaginative form to the concept of a world-directing reason, an orderly development of things proceeding from the harmony of opposites by an endless process of transmutation. Trust in this divine process was made the highest good of man. Anaxagoras introduced the idea of the cosmos, the harmonious movement of tremendous masses under the direction of reason, which was the essence of both thought and power, and an element neither mingled with grosser matter nor endowed with personality. The theological explanation of the world remained, however, limited to inorganic nature; and Diogenes of Appollonia was the first to
bring organic life within the scope of teleology. Socrates reversed the tendency of the ancient philosophers, making man the central point of his teaching and valuing the world according to its utility to man, his views resting on practical monotheism. The Greek dramatic poets, especially Sophocles, also taught the absolute justice and wisdom of divine providence. Following his teacher Socrates, Plato, in his theory of ideas, developed a complete system of teleological metaphysics, making the supreme idea the idea of the good, which is identical with world-reason and with divinity. A spiritual personality was of less concern to him than a moral direction to the world-process, but at the same time he maintained the existence of providence in matters both great and small, holding that whatever fate the gods bestow on the righteous is for his good (" Republic," x. 612 E). This position, represented by Plato chiefly in figurative terms, was taken over and given a purely intellectual form by Aristotle, who formulated and established scientific monotheism, though in his scheme there is no room for the concept of providence. Stoic philosophy, on the other hand, made the thought of providence a prominent factor. While Epicurus banished the gods from the world, the Stoics accepted the divinity as the life-giving principle, the original source of power, the directive reason, the allcontrolling providence. God and the world are one, and the world-order is controlled by providence acting through necessary processes, each link in the chain of phenomena being closely bound to