THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
tained. In North Germany Hans Briiggemann, though incited by Netherlands art, through his own genius gave his work distinction, producing the great altar in the cathedral at Sleswick.
During the sixteenth century the Italian Renaissance began to diffuse its results over Germany with the result that the classicism then fashionable came in. In Italy at the end of this century the baroque style entered and prevailed. The creator here was the papal architect Lorenzo Bernini (d. 1680). This style ran to the pathetic and affecting; and since it needed for effectiveness the aid of painting, plastic art surrendered its independence to its sister art. Thus there came into being the theatrically composed portrayals of history of saints and martyrs characterized by unbalanced piety, frivolous sensualism, and repellent realism. While the Thirty Years' War shattered German art for the time, Prussia showed the first recovery, artists being imported. But the baroque stylist Andreas Schliiter (d. 1714) was of home growth, whose equestrian statue of the great elector is the most characteristic production, though his marble pulpit in the Marienkirche in Berlin is a graceful and decorative composition.
With the end of the eighteenth century the independence of art ceased. There began a rechauffe of all periods and styles which gave both to architecture and to sculpture a chaotic impress. Modern
intercourse and expositions facilitated
3. Recent methods of reproduction, brought per-
Art. sons and schools of all lands together,
and produced the great mixture of stylep which is found in the present. At first, the antique was in fashion, represented by the Italian Antonio Canova (d. 1822) and the Dane Bertel Thorwaldsen (d. 1S41). The latter lives through his great creation, now in the Vor-Frue-Kirke in Copenhagen, the Christ accompanied by his band of disciples, a work which vividly brings to mind Matt. xi. 28. Exaltation and gentleness envelop this form, fashioned in antique beauty. The most eminent representative of classicism in Germany was Christian Daniel Rauch (d. 1857), who, though his inclination was toward the secular, yet left in his praying Moses (in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam) evidence of perception of the needs of religious sculpture. In Ernst Rietschel there was completed an approach to realism. While his delicate Pieta in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam is based on ideal classicism, the Luther memorial at Worms has received the entire force of historical presentation. But in Germany classicism is worthily represented only by Adolf Hildebrand. For the rest, plastic art is showing all types from fantastic symbolism to the sharpest realism and the most bizarre impressionism. The same may be said of France, where August Rodin, following his predecessors Francois Rude and David d' Angers, has made a break with the classicistic past and introduced a thoroughgoing subjectivism, his figures showing emotionalism and the sensual. Yet the representative Frenchman of today is not Rodin but Albert Bartholomew whose creations reveal lofty conception, harmony, and proportion, especially as exhibited in his Monument aux morts in the churchyard of Pere la Chaise in
Paris. In Belgium Konstantin Meunier (d. 1905) placed his great talents at the service of the social question, portraying the laboring classes with fidelity to life.
As a whole the art of the present is eclectic, though originality is not lacking, while strong individuality is also a marked characteristic. Hellenism is still distinguishable in plastic form, and romantic and ecclesiastical traditions remain in force, especially in Roman Catholic art. But the tendency of art as a whole is to walk in the free paths of subjectivism, and it reflects, equally with literature, the spiritual, ethical, and religious incoherence which marks the times. Moreover, the close bonds, so evident in the Middle Ages, between architecture and sculpture have been severed. On the other hand, in the works of memorial character religious art has produced some memorable results, though even in these great dangers are manifest. In decorative work ecclesiastical art still leans upon the models presented by the Middle Ages.
(Victor Schultze.) Bibliography : In general, much of the literature under Art and Church; Cemeteries; and Painting has bearing on the subject, some of it is immediately pertinent, especially the works of Auguste, Didron, Lenoir, Hemans, Otte, Jameson, Schlosser, Kraus, Lowrie, Schultze, Garrucci, Burckhardt, Wolfflin, and Rosenberg. The reader is directed also to the series of monographs published as Zur Kunstgeschichte, Strasburg, 1900 sqq.; Kilnstler-Monographien, Bielefeld, 1901 sqq., and Great Masters in Sculpture, published by Bell, London, 1903 sqq. Also to H. Stegman, Sculpture of the West, London, 1907; and A. Kuhn, Allgemeine Kunst-Geschichte, Einsiedeln, 1908.
For the ancient period consult: W. Liibke, Geschichte der Plastik, Stuttgart, 1880; idem, Grundriss der Kunstgeschichte, ed. M. Semrau, 5 vols., ib. 1903-05; C. C. Perkins, Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture, London, 1883; A. Bayersdorfer, Klassischer Skulpturenschatz, Munich, 1896; A. Springer, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte, 2 vols., 4th ed., Leipsic, 1895; J. Ficker, Die altchristlichen Bildwerke im christlichen Museum des Laterans, Leipsic, 1890; G. Stuhlfauth, Die altchristliche Elfenbeinplastik, Freiburg, 1896; J. Wiegand, Das altchristliche Hauptportal an der Kirche der heiligen Sabina zu Rom, Treves, 1900; F. Freiherr Goeler von Ravensburg, Grundriss der Kunstgeschichte, ed. M. Schmid, Berlin, 1901-03; J. Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst, Vienna, 1904; K. M. Kaufmann, Handbuch der christlichen Archaologie, Paderborn, 1905; E. Redslob, Das Kirchenportal, Jena, 1909. A rich source of knowledge is Cabrol, Dictionnaire, e.g., the article " Agneau," i. 878 sqq.
For the pre-Reformation period consult; W. Bode, Geschichte der deutschen Plastik, Berlin, 1885; A. Schmarsow, Donatello, Leipsic, 1886; P. Clemen, M erovingische und karolingische Plastik, Bonn, 1892; E. von Flottwell, Meisterwerk deutscher Bildnerei in Naumburg, Magdeburg, 1892; E. Meyer, Die Skulpturen des Strassburger M tinsters, Strasburg, 1894; W. Voge, Die Anfiinge des monumentalen Stiles im Mittelalter, ib. 1894; L. Gonse, La Sculpture francaise depuis le xiv. siecle, Paris, 1895; M. R. James, The Sculptures in the Lady Chapel at Ely, London, 1895; E. Stueckelberg, Longobardische Plastik, Zurich, 1896; A. Weese, Die Bamberger Domskulpturen, Strasburg, 1897; M. G. Zimmermann, Oberitalienische Plastik im friihen und hiihern Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1897; S. Lami, Dictionnaire des sculpteurs de Vecole francaise du moyen Age, Paris, 1898: E. Male, V Art religieux du xiii. siecle en France, ib. 1898; K. Moriz-Eichhorn, Der Skulpturencyklus in der Vorhalle des Freiburger Munsters, Strasburg, 1899; J. Mantuani, Tuotilo, Strasburg, 1900; L. J. Freeman, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance, New York, 1901 ; A. Venturi, Storia dell' Arte Italiana, Milan, 1901 sqq.; A. Goldschmidt, Die Freiberger Goldene Pforti, Berlin, 1902; A. Marignan, Hist, de la sculpture en Languedcc du xii-xiii. siicle, Paris, 1902; K. Franck, Der Meister der Ecclesia und Synagoge am Strassburger Munster, Diissel-