THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the mischief wrought through Christian censorship (or the fear of it) both in manuscripts and in editions. The evidence both of this censorship and its results is abundant. In 1631 a Jewish assemblage in Poland issued a circular (cf. C. Leslie, A Short and Easy Method with the Jews, pp. 2-3, London, 1812) which directed under pain of excommunication that in the issue of editions of Mishna or Gemara all references to Jesus of Nazareth be expunged and marked with a circle (which the rabbis would know how to explain); this was in consequence of the interest of Christians in Jewish literature and was intended to avoid persecution and charges against Jews by Christians. Russian censorship has forbidden attention to be called to omissions by the existence of blank spaces. An example of this censorship is the edition of the Talmud of Basel, 1578-81; the tract 'Abhodhah zarah is wholly omitted, in place of " Talmud " " Gemara " appears, " Sadduceans " or "Epicureans" displaces " Jewish Christian " or " heretic," " Samaritan " or " Cusbite " displaces the word for " non-Jew," " Rome " is transposed into " Babylon," " Roman " becomes " Aramean " or " Persian "or " Babylonian," and other even graver changes are made. In matters of this sort not only Christians but Jews have been deceived, as when portions belonging to the second century make mention of Sadducees, whose existence ceased after the destruction of the Temple, and, similarly, mistakes have been made in the understanding of the word rendered " Jewish Christian " or " heretic." On the censorship of Jewish books light is thrown by L. Zunz, Die Ritus des synagogalen Gottesdienstes, pp. 147-149, 222-225 (Berlin, 1859) ; H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Biicher, vol. i. (Bonn, 1883); A. Berliner, Censurund Confiscation hebraischer Biicher im Kirchenstaate (Frankfort, 1891); W A. Popper, The Censorship of Hebrew Books (New York, 1899) . Some of the passages either stricken out or changed through this censorship are collected in books mostly anonymous (with Hebrew titles; one issued at Konigsberg, 1860) and in the Dikduke sopherim of Rabbinovicz (1868-88).
VI. Evaluation of the Talmud: As respects the contents of the Talmud, distinction is to be made between halachic and haggadic material. The meaning of Halacha (Halakah) is (1) conduct regulated by the Torah, (2) the law according to which conduct is regulated, or legal regulations. The plural is used to express both i. Halacha individual regulations of a religious sort and and also the collections of such regu- Haggada. lations. Halacha means, in its implications, what has been immemorially regarded as fixed, then what a majority has decided in a recognized assembly (of scholars), and finally what has been taught by prevailing authority. In the Mishna conflicting opinions are often adduced without indicating which prevailed. The Gemara gives the impression of a salon or of a collection of records of discussions by the Amoraim concerning Tannaite deliverances. Relatively seldom can one determine from the Talmud itself what is Halacha or definitive requirement; this is to be reached by investigation and use of the rules found in the
halachic part of the Sedher Tannaim we-' Amor' aim, or by the employment of the Yadh ha-Hazdka of Maimonides, the Sepher ha-Mizwoth of Moses of Coucy, and the Shulhan ha-'Arukh of Joseph Karo, and with these last the commentaries should be used. Haggada (Haggadhah) now denotes in general the non-halachic contents of the Talmud; it comes from a word employed in the sense " to teach," and was formerly employed in the sense " the Scripture teaches." Haggadic material in the Talmud is inserted in the body of halachic material, and often the connection is loose; sometimes there is no connection at all. Long haggadic pieces which may be specifically referred to are Berakhoth 54a-64a, Shabbath 30a-33a, Meghillah 10b-17a, Gittin 55b-58b, Sanhedrin 90a- 113b.
Few literary products have educed so contradictory estimates of their value as has the Talmud. To it have been given overweening praise and calumnious blame. A calm estimate requires first the consideration of the foregoing distinction between Halacha and Haggada. Next there must be taken into account the political relationships and the religious views of the Jews both in Palestine and in Babylonia during the first five centuries of the Christian era and the circumstances under which these relations and views arose. There will then be explained the hostility of the Jews, which here sometimes finds expression, to their oppressors and to the forms of religion and irreligion and heathenism and unethicality which pervaded the regions and actions of that period. While the forms of this hostility will not thus be justified, they will at least be understood.
(H. L. Strack.)
VII. Explanation and Translation of the Page from the Talmud.
The text is the matter in large print in the center of the page; the Rashi (commentary) is immediately on the left of the text, and the Tosafot (" additions ") immediately on the right. The material on the margins are condensed biographical notes (not translated), and that on the lower right hand and bottom margin relates to another page and is also not translated. The question under discussion on the preceding pages (not reproduced here) has to do with the saving of a scroll of the law in case of fire by means of passing into a closed lane, and in the discussion the query arises, what is a closed lane? The various answers to this appear in the first part of the translation which follows (which is given very literally, preserving so far as possible the order of the words).
Text: R. Ashi, however, said: three partitions and one stake form a closed lane, three partitions without a stake form an open lane; and even R. Eliezer, who says that two stakes are required, that is only for (moving thither) provisions and beverages, (admits that) for a scroll of the Law one stake is sufficient.
Mishna: One may save food for three meals, that which is fit for human beings (may be saved) for men, and that which is fit for cattle (may be saved) for cattle. How so? If a conflagration happen on a Friday night one may save food for three meals; on Saturday morning, for two meals;
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