61 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ultramontanism
individual piety nor had anything to do with dogmas of the Church. Where, then, is the limit of “ecclesiastical interests’? The claim of power to release civil subjects from obedience to the civil government, for the sake of those interests, was still essentially maintained in 1805 by Pius VII. On the other side, the reaction of Ultramontanism upon affairs within the Church came still earlier to light. The triumph of Gregorian ideas eliminated the ancient episcopal trend; and, together with the freedom of the bishops, they abolished what independent arrangements there still existed in the national churches. The pope came to be not only supreme, but sole lawgiver; he bears, as Boniface VIII. expresses it, “ all rights in the shrine of his breast ” (book vi., cap. 1, De Const. I., 2). It was only transiently, under stress of the times, that a sort of new episcopal régime took shape during the schism through the great reforming synods; this novelty, however, was condemned and terminated by the Fifth Lateran Council. The Council of Trent still found existent potent expressions of the episcopal drift, but the Vatican Council stopped them once for all. Similarly the Gallican policy, and everything like ‘“‘ Josephinism”’ or philosophic paternalism (see JosEPH II.), was ended forever. The sole reaction against such despotism within the Church is nowadays found among the Old Catholics (q.v.). As concerning the suppression set afoot by Ultramontanism against freedom in scientific theology, the most important example is afforded by the history of German Roman Catholic the-
4. Effects ology. In Ddllinger’s address of Sept. on Re- 28, 1863, before the Roman Catholic search and academic assembly in Munich (see Theology. DorLiInceR, JoHANN JosEeF Ianaz von, § 6), the points were brought for-
ward that the sixteenth century indicates a flourishing period for Roman Catholic theology, whereas with the seventeenth century in Spain, and with the eighteenth in France, decay set in; and that although still high tasks were incumbent upon Germany’s theology, these could not be even approached if her freedom of movement were denied. When Ddllinger said this, he did not surmise how soon this refusal was to come, that even in the following year, by terms of the Syllabus errorum, again in 1870 through the definition of papal infallibility, all freedom was to be taken away from the theologians. Even before that definition was pronounced, on July 19, 1870, Déllinger had discerned what in effect became the fate of Roman Catholic theology in consequence of the dogma. ‘‘So then,” he says at the close of his Pope and the Council (London, 1869), ‘‘ the newly coined article of faith must plant and settle itself as foundation and cornerstone of the whole Roman Catholic doctrinal structure; the activity of the theologians must reduce itself to the secondary task of finding whether a papal utterance for a given doctrine is extant or not. . . . To what purpose any further toilsome delving in the Bible, to what end the labored study of tradition,
prohibited members of religious orders from teaching in the public schools, limited the episcopal powers over the clergy and clerical powers over the laity, changing, in fact, the ecclesiastical law of the land,
if a single utterance of the infallible pope has power to demolish the conscientious theological work of a generation? ’’ As regards the more modern Roman Catholic Biblical research, nobody will call attention, by way of refuting Déllinger, to the “‘ Commission in behalf of advancing Biblical Studies,” organized by command of Pope Pius X., as though this were an instrument for advancing such studies. For that this is merely an instrument for shackling them appears from the Motu proprio ‘‘ Prestantia”’ of Sept. 18, 1907 (cf. Osservatore Romano of Nov. 21, 1907), as is elsewhere patent from “‘ decisions ”’ hitherto announced in relation to weighty matters of Biblical introduction (Mosaic composition of the Pentateuch [1905]; historic integrity of John’s Gospel [1907]; authorship of the Book of Isaiah [1908]) ; [verbal agreement of the extant Greek text of Matthew with the lost Aramaic original (1911)]. But still far more comprehensive is the curb that was applied to more liberal, theologically technical verifications of results by the two pronouncements against the ‘‘ Modernists”’ (see MoDERNISM), namely, the decree of the Congregation of Inquisition, Lamentabili, of July, 1907; and the papal encyclical, Pascendi Dominici gregis (Eng. transl. in Programme of Modernism, pp. 149 sqq., New York and London, 1908), of Sept. 8,1907. That the matters involved do not turn on theoretical exercises of the Curia’s rhetoric appears from the extremely sharp measures devised against all ‘‘ Modernists.” For it was principally against Roman Catholic scientific ‘‘ palpitations’ in those countries that the entire procedure was directed, although the first man to use his pen against these decrees was an English scholar, George Henry Tyrrell (q.v.; he wrote in the London Times, Sept. 30, Oct. 1, 1907). He was then followed by individual Italian sympathizers in the Programma det Modernistti (Rome, 1907; Eng. transl., Programme of Modernism, New York and London, 1908), and in Rinnovamento (Milan, since 1907); but the main focus of the cause is to be sought in France. In Germany, where, during the spring of 1908, the Internationale Wochenschrift published a series of articles elucidating the importance of the foregoing decrees, the number of deliberate and steadfast modernists among the Roman Catholic theologians is exceedingly small.
If Ultramontanism, therefore, has shackled the motions or aspirations of scientific freedom, the question still remains as to its effects upon the mass
of Roman Catholics. In this connec-
5. Effects tion, the scope of this examination em-
upon the braces that materializing and artifi-
People. cialism of religion which inheres in
Roman Catholicism, in so far as the devotional methods which for centuries past have been customary are employed to the end of increasingly extended propagation and fostering of the ultramontane spirit. Some of these devotional methods and devices were set forth by Reusch, both old and newly invented ones, in his Die deutschen Bischéfe und der Aberglaube (Bonn, 1879). These and countless others are utilized by Ultramontanism for the sake of advancing its political aims by exciting confessional passion. An advantageous vehicle for the fostering of the ultramontane spirit
Ultramontanism Under-Eyck
in that country has been conspicuous for sixty years past in the regularly recurring Roman Catholic conventions, employing a comprehensive daily press, a calculated and apposite pamphlet press, and the literature of art and culture. The fraternizing cause has been developed on the largest scale through all kinds of industrial and professional associations, so that the ‘‘ Chinese wall” that barricades Roman Catholicism against Protestantism becomes ever higher and higher. But that Roman Catholicism shall stand forth as an outward power along ultramontane lines is carefully provided for by imposing church feasts and processions. The attitude of modern Jesuitical Roman Catholicism (i.e., of Ultramontanism) toward modern culture is negatively comprehended in the Syllabus errorum of 1864 (text and Eng. transl. in Schaff, Creeds, ii. 213-233), to which the decree Lamentabili, together with the encyclical Pascendi, forms a complement. In sum, the spirit out of which the reaction against Modernism has proceeded in the broadest sense is to be sought in the Spanish type of Roman Catholic ‘religiosity’ that was embodied in Ignatius Loyola, then organized and systematized, until eventually it became instilled into the veins of Roman Catholicism at large and complete. K. BrnraTH. BrsuiocrarHy: J. J. I. von Dollinger, Kirche und Kirchen, Papsithum und Kirchenstaat, Munich, 1861, Eng. transl., The Church and the Churches, or the Papacy and the Temporal Power, London, 1862; idem, Das Papsttum, Munich, 1869, 2d ed., 1892; idem, Kleinere Schriften, ed. Reusch, ib. 1890; Schrader, Der Papst und die modernen Ideen, Vienna, 1867; J. F. von Schulte, Die Macht der rémischen Kiirie, Prague, 1871; O. Mejer, Zur Geschichte der rémischdeutschen Frage, 3 vols., Rostock, 1871-74; T. Weber, Staat und Kirche nach . . . den Absichten des Ultramontanismus, Breslau, 1872; G. R. Badenoch, Ultramontanism, London, 1874; J. Fessler, True and False Infallibility of the Popes, New York, 1875; E. Michaud, L’ Htat actuel de l’ église catholique en France, Paris, 1876; J. Friedrich, Geschichte des vatikanischen Konzils, 3 vols., Bonn, 1877-82; idem, Ignaz von Déllinger, 3 vols., Munich, 1899— 1901; G. Droysen, Geschichte der Gegenreformation, pp. 149 sqq., Berlin, 1893; P. von Hoensbroech, Der Ultramontanismus, sein Wesen und seine Bekimpfung, 2d ed., Berlin, 1898; idem, Der Ultramontanismus in Deutschland, Leipsic, 1896; idem, Das Papsttum in seiner sozialen . . . Wirksamkeit, 2 vols., ib. 1900-02; F. W. F. Nippold, The Papacy in the 19th Century (transl.), New York, 1900; E. G. Man, Papal Aims and Papal Claims, London, 1902; Majunke, Geschichte des Kulturkampfs, 2d ed., Paderborn, 1902; J. Mausbach, Die ultramontane Moral nach Graf von Hoensbroech, Berlin, 1902; C. Mirbt, Der Ultramontanismus am 19. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1902; J. Oman, Vision and Authority; or, the Throne of St. Peter, London, 1902; L. K. Gotz, Der Ultramontanismus als Weltanschawung, Bonn, 1905; F. Heiner, Der Syllabus in ultramontaner und antiultramontaner Beleuchtung, Mainz, 1905; C. Latreille, Joseph de Maistre et le papauté, Paris, 1906; G. Anrich, Der moderne Ultramontanismus in seiner Entstehung und Entwicklung, Tiibingen, 1909; G. B. Thompson, The Kulturkampf, Toronto, 1909; the literature under Pius IX. and Prus X.; also under Inrauuipinity; Krys, Power or Tam; Porn, Papacy Papau System; and Vatican Counciu. ‘
UMBREIT, tm’ brait, FRIEDRICH WILHELM CARL: German theologian; b. at Sonneborn (3 m. n. of Gotha) Apr. 11, 1795; d. at Heidelberg Apr. 26, 1860. He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha and at the University of Gottingen, in the latter institution. coming under the influence of Eichhorn, who stirred in him an enthusiasm for oriental studies which never left him. Herder also affected him in the same direction, and so to study