67 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Union, Christian Social Union of the Churches
this body God supplies ministers for the perfecting of the saints, the banishment of confusion in doctrine, and the organic increase of the body in love (Eph. iv. 11-16; cf. Rom. xii. 4-5; I Cor. x. 17, xii. 12-31). Nevertheless the schismatic spirit soon began to show itself, especially between Jewish and Gentile Christians, and between local factions at Corinth. The dissensions at Corinth led St. Paul sternly to condemn the division of Christians under rival leaderships (I Cor. i. 10-17, iii. 83-9), and to emphasize the necessity of a common speech and mind, and of charity (I Cor. i. 10, xiii.). The quarrel between Jewish and Gentile Christians threatened to cause a lasting schism, and this led to a conference of apostles, elders, and missionaries at Jerusalem, the result being a clear mutual understanding among the leaders of the Church, and a determination to insist only upon essential things, and not to require uniformity in non-essentials (Acts xv. 1-33). Thus was established an apostolic precedent for dealing with ruptures of Christian unity.
The schismatic spirit soon revived, however, at Corinth, and became the occasion of the “‘ Epistle of Clement,” written in behalf of the Roman Church about 95 a.p. (see CLEMENT oF Romp, §§ 3-4), in which it is declared that the ministry of the Church was arranged by the apostles with foreknowledge of the contentions that were to arise concerning the office of oversight (xliv.); and the rise of dissident faction is described as ‘‘ detestable and unholy sedition” (i.). This teaching is echoed by Ignatius of Antioch (q.v.), about 110 A.D., in his well-known ‘“ Epistles.” The imperative need of unity is the chief burden of his letters, and it is made to depend upon loyalty to the bishop with his presbyters and deacons, who together constitute the marks of a real ekklesia (e.g., Ad Trallianos, iii.). He says in one representative passage, ‘‘ If any man followeth one that maketh a schism, he doth not inherit the kingdom of God” (Ad Ephesios, iv.; ef. Ad Philadelphenos, iii.). The rise of Montanistic and Gnostic sectarianism caused the obligation of Church unity to be emphasized by various writers (e.g., Irenzeus, Her., IV., xxxiii. 1, 7; Clement of Alexandria, Strom., VII., xvii. 107; Dionysius of Alexandria, in Eusebius, Hist. eccl., vi. 45). Cyprian of Carthage (q.v.) wrote a treatise, De unitate ecclesie, in which he makes the episcopate the center of unity. The general sentiment of the ancients was registered in the Constantinopolitan Creed, ‘‘I believe . . . in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church.’’ Various schisms arose, but the sentiment that schism is sinful prevailed throughout this period, and the main body of Christians, both East and West, with a few brief interruptions, succeeded in maintaining intercommunion and visible unity. Each local bishop was recognized as the center of unity within his jurisdiction, while the unity of the episcopate at large was secured by the development of provinces, each haying its metropolitan, and of five patriarchates, severally centering in Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Political cireumstances gave to Rome the foremost place, and to Constantinople, as new Rome, the second place.
2. Patristic Period.
Serious controversies were usually dealt with, however, by councils of bishops—provincial or general, according to necessity (see COUNCILS AND SyNops, §§ 1-8).
The claims which began to be made by the Roman see in the patristic period became in the Middle Ages a chief cause of permanent schism between the East and West; although other causes also were operative. The division of the Roman Empire, coupled with the decline of civilization, caused mutual isolation, accentuated racial differences, and gave fictitious importance to every mutual divergence in practise and terminology. Frequent quarrels took place between Rome and Constantinople, and matters reached a climax in 1054 a.p., when a permanent schism began. The more prominent issues between the two Churches were (1) the claims of the papal see; (2) the insertion by the West of the Filioque clause in the Nicene Creed (see Fit10QquE ConTROVERSY); and the use by the Westerns of unleavened bread in the Eucharist. Attempts at reunion were made at the councils of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439), which grew out of the need which the Eastern Empire felt of assistance in its struggle with the Turks. The motive was worldly, and although at each council important concordats were adopted by representatives of both churches, the fanaticism of the Eastern monastic clergy and populace made them abortive. The schism remains unhealed.
The sixteenth century saw the Protestant revolt, out of which has grown the multiplicity of religious bodies which now divide Christian allegiance in the Western world. Its well-known causes need not be described, but it took two forms—the Lutherans and Reformed (Calvinists and Zwinglians) developed presbyterial and congregational ministries; while the Anglicans retained the threefold ministry, although rejecting papal jurisdiction over themselves; and the Swedes retained an episcopate, but abandoned the diaconate. All of the revolting bodies except the Anglicans rejected the sacerdotal con-
ception of the ministry, and with vary- 4. Modern ing completeness abandoned the sac- Period +amental doctrines of the medieval Through the = Sixteenth Church, in order to remove what they Century. regarded as barriers between individual souls and the pardoning grace of God. This revolt had an inevitable tendency to deaden —in some directions to destroy—belief in the visible Church as the mystical body of Christ, and as intended by Christ to be united forever in a visible intercommunion by a common faith and ministry. Accordingly, the spirit of dissent grew mightily; and in spite of efforts to stay the process, Western Christendom has become broken up into several hundred rival bodies.
Numerous attempts at reunion have since been made, but the world-wide aspects of the problem have not often been faced. Among these attempts the following are of chief historical importance: (1) The Conference of Marburg, 1529 (see MarBuRG, CONFERENCE OF), between Lutheran and Zwinglian theologians; an attempt to harmonize sacramental views, but defeated by the rigid position o: Luther.
3. Medieval Period.
Union of the Churches