THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
advised to enter one of the associations of laborers at Milan and elsewhere, and these associations and conventicles, sometimes erecting their own buildings, formed initially the fixed centers of Waldensian missionary activity. To these were added in the German-Lombard section, in the thirteenth century, studia or ‘‘ hospices,” in which the “ converts ’’ were trained and the preachers entertained. The laborers’ associations, special objects of mistrust, apparently disappeared before 1218, but the other two institutions of conventicles and studia long lived on. {In the Rescriptum (of 1218) of the Poor Men of Lombardy to the Poor Men of Lyons, the former still plead for the toleration of the Congregationes laborantium on condition that abuses and vices be abolished. a. Ho. N.] Until the secession of the Lombards the government of the Waldenses rested in the hands of Waldo, who was regarded as bishop and supervising head. It is evident that after 1184 and before 1210 the society resolved to create anew the three orders of bishops, priests, and deacons. It then recognized Waldo as bishop, and he ordained other ‘‘ poor men” as presbyters and deacons. The reason for this step was doubtless distrust of the sacramental ministrations of Roman Catholic priests, and these three offices were retained in accordance with the “law of God ”’ in the Bible. Waldo was clearly prepositus or rector and bishop until the secession, after which the Lombards apparently continued the monarchical system; and till the end of the fifteenth century they had a summus pontifex, who, after the second half of the fourteenth century, resided in Apulia or middle Italy. There is mention of several Lombard bishops in Lombardy and Germany about 1266. In France, about 1218, there is no evidence of a monarchical rector, only of two “ procurators ”’ chosen annually. Toward the end of the thirteenth century, however, a major minister chosen for life was to be found in France, together with other bishops, or majores, who conferred ordination, but exercised no administrative functions. From all this it is evident that the episcopal dignity conferred by ordination was at first not necessarily joined with the rectorate, which was subject to the election of the assembly and its regulations. Yet it was deemed important that the rector possess also consecration as bishop, which seems always to have been the case in Lombardy. The first exact information concerning the powers and duties of these incumbencies is contained in French sources of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The deacon (also called minor; in Germany junior) was simply the servant of the presbyters, bishops, and rectors; and when the “ poor men” went out in pairs, one was usually a presbyter and the other a deacon. Originally the deacon also had the right to preach and hear confession. ‘The presbyter was empowered to preach in the district assigned him by the rector, to hear confession, and to pronounce the blessing at meals. Later he could also confer ordination if no bishop were present. In the Lombard-German Waldenses all consciousness of distinction between the orders of bishop and priest had vanished in the fifteenth century. The bishop, later called major or majoralis in France, likewise had the right to cele-
brate the Lord’s Supper and to confer ordination. The rector or prepositus, later called major omnium or major minister in France, had, in addition to his episcopal functions, the prerogative of convening and conducting the assembly which met once or twice annually; antl in France he might also preach everywhere and grant absolution. The rite of ordination for all three grades was simply confession of sins (lacking among the Lombard-Germans), the Lord’s Prayer, and laying on of hands. In France all ‘‘ poor men”’ were at least deacons about 1320. In addition were the ‘‘ sisters’’; but these were never very numerous, and in France, about the beginning of the fourteenth century, it was resolved to admit no more sisters, since they could hold no spiritual office; while in the Lombard-German district they lived in the hospices by the close of the thirteenth century, having given up itinerant preaching. There was likewise a controversy between the Lombards and Waldenses concerning the ‘ ministers,” but at Bergamo it was decided that these officials should be chosen by the assembly either from the recent converts or from the “ friends,” and either for a term or for life. [The question at issue in 1218 between the Poor Men of Lombardy and the Poor Men of Lyons was whether prepositi (or bishops) should be appointed by the former. Waldo, considering his own headship sufficient, had positively refused to allow the appointment of such officials either by the Italians or the French in his own lifetime or even after his death. It was agreed between the parties that prepositi might be appointed for life (eternaliter) or rectors for a time, as might seem more useful or conducive to peace. A. H. N.] These “ministers”? were evidently not part of the three spiritual orders of the Waldenses, but were chosen by the assembly to conduct the conventicles of “friends” and the associations of laborers, and to aid the itinerant apostles. It thus becomes clear that before 1218 the attempt was made to organize the “friends ” of the Waldenses. Majores, bishops, presbyters, and deacons had no fixed residence, but once or twice each year all, or all the older members, of the sect seem to have convened in a commune, or assembly, called by the Roman Catholics “‘ council ” or “ chapter.”’ So long as Waldo was recognized by the Lombards, this assembly was overshadowed by him, but after the schism it became a prominent feature in the administration of the society in Lombardy, as it did in France after the death of Waldo. This assembly decided on the admission of new members; chose presiding officers and “ ministers”’; determined who should receive ordination to the various grades of its clergy; exercised discipline; considered the general condition of the sect, and received a report from each member concerning the state of the work in his missionary district; and later ruled concerning the use of the alms and funds contributed by the “friends.” Ags the missionary field of the sect grew, it became no longer possible to convene all members, so that from more distant regions three or four delegates were considered sufficient.
II]. The Ancient Waldenses: After the schism of the Lombards the old Waldenses were restricted to their early missionary districts in Aragon, Cata-