RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Will, Freedom of The William of Champeaux
probleme der Ethik, pt. 1, Ueber die Freiheit der menschlichen Fretheit, 4th ed., Frankfort, 1891; R. Cudworth, A Treatise on Freewill, ed. J. Allen, London, 1838; F. W. J. von Schelling, Ueber das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit, in his Werke, Stuttgart, 1856-61; A. Bolliger, Die Willensfretheit, Berlin, 1903.
Discussions from a philosophical or more _ strictly theological standpoint are: L. Creuzer, Skeptische Betrachtungen tiber die Freiheit des Willens, Giessen, 1793; J. P. Romang, Willensfreiheit und Determinismus, Bern, 1835; H. C. W. Sigwart, Das Problem von der Freiheit und der Unfreiheit des menschlichen Wollens, Tuibingen, 1839; W. Cairns, Treatise on Moral Freedom, London, 1844; J. P. Espy, The Human Wiil, Cincinnati, 1860; D. D. Whedon, The Freedom of the Will, New York, 1864; T. Hughes, The Human Will, London, 1867; P. P. Alexander, Freedom or Moral Causation, Edinburgh, 1868, rev. ed., 1875; A. de Gasparin, La Liberté morale, 2 vols., Paris, 1868; P. Dupuy, Du libre arbitre, Paris, 1870; J. C. Fischér, Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1871; F. W. Otto, Die Fretheit des Menschen, thr Wesen und thre Schriinke, Giitersloh, 1872; F. Korner, Instinkt und freier Wille, Leipsic, 1875; W. B. Carpenter, Principles of Mental Physiology, §§ 333- 339, London, 1876; R. Schellwien, Der Wille, die Lebensgrundmacht, Berlin, 1879; L. A. Wiese, Die Bildung des Willens, 4th ed., Berlin, 1879; P. Le Blois, Htude sur la volonté et libre arbitre, Paris, 1881; G. Renard, L’Homme est-tl libre? 4th ed., Paris, 1881; L. Michel, Libre arbitre et liberté, Paris, 1882; G. H. Schneider, Der menschliche Wille vom Standpunkte der neueren Entwickelungstheorien, Berlin, 1882: J. H. Witte, Ueber die Freiheit des Willens, das sittliche Leben und seine Gesetze, Bonn, 1882; P. Janet, La Morale, Bk. III., ch. vi.—vii., Paris, 1874, Eng. transl., New York, 1883; H. Maudsley, Body and Will, London, 1883; A. Fouillée, La Liberté et le déterminisme, 2d ed., Paris, 1884; W. G. Ward, Philosophy of Theism, 2 vols., London, 1884; G. Friedrich, Die Krankheiten des Willens, Munich, 1885, 2d ed., 1886; L. Dieffenbach, Der menschliche Wille und seine Grundlagen, Darmstadt, 1886; W. Meyer, Die Wahlfretheit des Willens in ihrer Nichtigkeit dargelegt, Gotha, 1886; G. L. Fonsegrive, Essai sur le libre arbitre: sa théorie et son histoire, Paris, 1887, 2d ed., 1896; A. Bain, Emotions and the Will, ch. ii., 4th ed., New York, 1887; idem, Mental and Moral Science, bk. IV., ch. ii., 3d ed., Aberdeen, 1892; C. F. Heman, Zur Ge schichte der Lehre von der Fretheit des menschlichen Willens, Leipsic, 1887; O. K. Notowich, La Liberté de la volonté, Paris, 1888; N. Kurt, Willensfretheit, Leipsic, 1890; idem, Die Waillensprobleme, Weimar, 1902; C. Berger, Das Problem der Willensfretheit, Leipsic, 1891; J. Dewey, Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics, pt. 1, ch. iii., Ann Arbor, 1891; H. C. Hiller, Against Dogma and Free-Will, London, 1892; C. Gutberlet, Die Willensfretheit und thre Gegner, Fulda, 1893; C. Klein, Die Fretheitslehre des Origenes, Strasburg, 1894; F. J. Mach, Die Willensfretheit des Menschen, Paderborn, 1894; G. B. Milesi, La negazione del libero arbitrio, Milan, 1894; B. Wille, Philosophie der Befreiung durch das reine Mittel, Berlin, 1894; W. Baumm, Die Willensfreiheit, Kreuzburg, 1895; H. Gayraud, Saint Thomas et le prédéterminisme, Paris, 1895; G. Cimbali, La volonti: wmana, 2d ed., Rome, 1897; W. James, The Will to Believe, New York, 1897; A. Lovell, Volo; or the Will, London, 1897; P. Moriaud, La Question de la liberté et la conduite humaine, Paris, 1897; E. W. Seripture, Thinking, Feeling, Doing, London, 1897; E. Naville, Le libre arbitre, Paris, 1890, 2d ed., 1898; C., Biuso, Del libero arbitrio, Florence, 1899; L. Noél, La Conscience du libre arbitre, Paris, 1899; J. Rehmke, T'rieb und Wille im menschlichen Handeln, Langensalza, 1899; D. J. Snider, The Will and its World, St. Louis, 1899; T. Gollwitzer, Plotins Lehre von der Willensfretheit, Kempten, 1900; J. Royce, The World and the Individual, New York, 1900-01; M. Wentscher, Das Problem der Wullensfretheit bet Lotze, Halle, 1901; P. Lapie, Logique de la volonté, Paris, 1902; F. Paulhan, La Volonté, Paris, 1902; A. Seitz, Willensfretheit und moderner psychologischer Determinismus, Cologne, 1902; A. Marucci, La Volonti secondo % progressi della biologia e della filosofia, Rome, 1903; K. Fahrion, Das Problem der Willensfretheit, Heidelberg, 1904; G. Graue, Selbstbewusstsein und Willensfrethett, Berlin, 1904; O. Pfister, Die Willensfrethett, ib., 1904; G. Torres, Willensfreiheit und wahre Fretheit, Munich, 1904; W. Windelband, Ueber Willensfreiheit, Tiibingen,
1904; K. Joél, Der freie Wille. Hine Entwicklung in Gespraichen, Munich, 1908; L. Pochhammer, Zum Problem der Willensfreiheit, Stuttgart, 1908; R. Beschoren, Das Problem der Willensfretheit in theoretischer und praktischer Beziehung, Hanover, 1910; I. Pfennigsdorf, Der religidse
Wille. Hin Beitrag zur Psychologie und Praxis der Re-
ligion, Leipsic, 1910; E. Wentscher, Der Wille. Ver-
such einer psychologischen Analyse, Leipsic, 1910; A.
Messer, Das Problem der Willensfreiheit, Gottingen, 1911;
C. Surbled, La Volonté, Paris, 1911; the article on PreE-
DESTINATION and the literature under it, as also the articles
and bibliographies there referred to; and the works of
Windelband, Erdmann, and Ueberweg- Heinze on the
history of philosophy.
WILLEHAD: Bishop of Bremen; b. in Northumberland, probably in the third decade of the eighth century; d.at Blexen (about 60 m. w. of Hamburg) Novy. 8, 789. Of Anglo-Saxon descent [and educated at York under Alcuin], after having been consecrated presbyter he left his native country c. 770 to preach the Gospel to the Frisians. He began his missionary activity at Dokkum, the place where Boniface was slain on June 5, 754, where the population was already half Christian. He preferred to break new ground, however; but on entering the county of Hugmerke in East Frisia, his sermons so aroused the rage of the people that he hardly escaped death. In 780 Charlemagne entrusted him with the promulgation of Christianity and the organization of the Church in the extensive territory of Wigmodia on the Lower Weser where the diocese of Bremen later originated. Willehad was successful, but an insurrection of Widukind, duke of the Saxons, in 782, halted his progress. Willehad escaped to Frisia, but several of his assistants and friends were killed, while the converts were forced to relinquish the Christian faith. Then Willehad, together with St. Liudger (q.v.), who until that time had labored in Dokkum, undertook a journey to Rome. After his return to Germany, Willehad settled at Echternach near Treves, where he lived the life of a monk, occupied with literary works. After the baptism of Widukind in 785 Willehad resumed his missionary activity at the Lower Wesel. On July 13, 787, he was consecrated bishop, and Bremen became the seat of the bishopric. During his life Willehad was credited with doing miracles, and after his death his remains were believed still to be efficacious in that direction.
(A. Hauck.)
BrsuiogRaPHy: The Vita et miracula by Ansgar was first published, ed. P. Cesar, at Cologne, 1642, is abbreviated in ASM, iii. 2, pp. 404-418, and in MPL, exviii. 1013-32, better in MGH., Script., ii (1829), 378-390 (Germ. transl., Lebensbeschreibungen des heiligen . . . Willehads, Leipsic, 1888); cf. MGH, Script. vii (1846), 267 sqq. Consult: A. Tappehorn, Das Leben des heiligen Willehad, Diilmen, 1901; W. Wright, Biographia Britannia, i. 345- 349, London, 1842; G. H. Klippel, Lebensbeschreibung des Erzbischofs Ansgar, Bremen, 1845; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbisthums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 51, 53, 55 sqq., vol. iii, Berlin, 1877; A. Ebert, Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, ii. 340-341, Leipsic, 1880; W. von Bippen, Aus Bremens Vorzeit, pp. 1-14, Bremen, 1885; J. F. Wolf, Sanct Willehad, Breslau, 1889; Rettberg, KD, ii. 450- 455, 537; Hauck, KD, ii. 350 sqq.
WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX: Schoolman and bishop of Chaélons; b. at Champeaux (near Melun, 26 m.s.e. of Paris) 1070; d. 1121. He enjoyed the instruction of the philosopher Manegold, of Ansellus of Laon, and of Roscellin; became teacher of dialectics and rhetoric at Notre Dame in Paris; enjoyed the esteem of Louis VI., and became archdeacon of
William of Champeaux William of Norwich