2 S n**), and called by the Arabs /eriA: (see also 2 K 4*^), the best ears for the purpose being grown in highly cultivated garden-land (Lv 2", Targ. Ibn G'an4ch). The word hittah in the singular usually means the cereal as growing, and is used in the plural for the cut and winnowed grain. It was sown either broadcast (Mt 13') or in rows, n-i'ifc' (Is 28^), translated ' principal ' in AV. The wheat harvest was usually in May, and the grain was reaped with a sickle, as in Egypt (Dt 16«, Joel 3", Rev 14"), and bound in sheaves, or cut off short by the ears in the Picenian mode (Job 24" ; see Varro, de re rustica, i. 50), or pulled up by the arm (Is 17°, lee also Peah, 4. 10, and Maundrell's Journey, p. 144). The sheaves, called D's^ti from being bound (Gn ZV, Ps 126'), or ct?s (K'u 2"), or didu (Lv 23", Dt 24'», Ru 2'-", Job 24") from being
collected in bundles, were piled in heaps (V'y, Ex 22*, Jg 15'), and were carted to the threshing- floor (Am 2'^ ; see AGRICULTURE), aflat, well-levelled surface in a high place, exposed to the wind, preferably the S. or S. E. wind from the wUdemess, and therefore dry. Such threshing-floors were permanent landmarks (Gn 50 "• ", 2 S 24>«- '*), on which the grain was trampled by oxen, or run over by a haruz (Is 28"), morag, or sledge (Is 41", 2 S 24*', i Ch 21^), caUed viovn-ej at the present day. Gideon, being afraid to go to a public threshing-floor, beat his grain with a flail in private (Jg 6"). The com, winnowed with a fork and shovel or fan, was collected and stored in a cache, or underground chamber, or dry well with clay walls (2 S 17", Jer 4P), or in an inner room. Thomson (Land and Book, i. 90) speaks of these underground receptacles as specially useful in protecting the grain from ants. It is re- markable that there is no reference to these grain cisterns in the Mishna. Bams or gran- aries were also used (Job 39", Mt 13'", Lk 3" 12'*). The first sheaf cut was presented as a wave sheaf before the Lord (Lv 23"), and sometimes decorated with lilies and other flowers (Ca 7'. See for similar ceremonies Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 334). There were several qualities of wheat ; that of Minnith being esteemed the best (Ezk 27"). Pannag, given as a place-name in AV, is rendered cassia in the LXX and millet in the Peshitta, but is left untranslated in RV. It was prob. some kind of aromatic or spice. Michmasn and Zanfl'ah were also famous for wheat, as was 'Ephrajin, where the straw grew so long that the proverb ' bringing straw to 'Ephrajin ' = ' bringing coals to Newcastle ' (Menah. 85. a. 5). The meal used in the offerings is called nj>b, or finely ground (Ex 29'"', Lv 2', Nu 7" etc.), to distinguish it from the n;;3 or ordinary meal. The best is called heleb kilioth hittah, 'fat of kidneys of wheat' (Dt'32"). This tine flour was the food of the wealthy (1 K 4**, 2 K 7', Ezk 16"- ", Rev 18").
Another material used in making bread was jnn (Ezk 4*), which is the Arab, dukhan. This was a smaller grain, probably dhurah (Sorghum vulgare), which is extensively grown in Bible lands, and used as a food-stuff" by the peasantry. It is the chief cereal of the poor in Arabia ; but dhurah bread is not generally relished by Europeans.
njD3 or spelt (Triticum spelta) is another coarse grain, with coarse strong straw and prickly heads, often sown on the borders of barley fields to enclose them (Is 28^). See Surenhusius (Mishnah, Kilaim Amst. i. 121). The grains of spelt do not easily separate from the husk when rubbed in the hands, as do those of wheat (Lk 6'). It ripens later than barley, and so escaped the plague or hail (Ex 9"^). The word is tH ' rye ' in A V in this place, and ' fitches' in Ezk 4' ; but these are certainly incorrect. In LXX it is rendered 6\vpa, which was in Greece used as food for horses (Homer, II. v. 196). Aq. and Theod. tr. it iia, which is a different species of grain, Triticum zea (Dioscorides, II. cxi. ; Theo- phrastus, HP viii. 1. 3 ; Sjirengel, Geschichte Botan. p. 36). Ibn G'anach tr" it 'vetch.' (ia was al.so a cattle food, see Odi/ss. iv. 41. 604. LXX calls Elijah's cake (1 K 19') oluntes. Herodotus says that the Egyp. bread was made of olyra (li. 36. 77) ; and in the Book of the Dead spelt (hot) is the grain represented as growing in the fields of the under-world (cix. 5) ; but the monuments show that wheat was also a common food-stuff (Ex 9^-). The Pennine rye (Secnie cereale) was probably not cultivated in Bible lands ; it is called in Gemara neshman by a paronomasia on Is 28^.
Beans, S'ls, were used as an ingredient in bread (Ezk 4'), and were also eaten roasted or parched (•SiT) ; see 2 S H"*. Lentiles, DVIH,, were also made
BREAD
BREAD
317
Into bread (Ezk 4') ; the small red lentile or 'adcis i» still used for this purpose among the poorest classes in Egypt (Sonnini). Lentiles and beans were probably among the c-ji-]i or ' pulse ' on which Daniel and his companions were feu (Dn 1") ; but the word means vegetables in general. The flamen dialis amons the Komana was forbidden to use beans as food (Anlns Gell. Noct. Attic. 10. xv. 12).