Native iron is almost unknown except in meteorites. Meteorio iron, however, contains impurities wnich make it brittle and exceedinjfly dillicult to forRe. For primitive methods of iron manufacture see Napier, Ancient Wofkert and ArtijU'rra in Mftal; [>ay, 7'A^ Vrrhittoric Vte nf Iron and Stfel; Swank, iron in tilt Age* (OT references in the last-named are uncrit icalX
In the Scripture records iron appears side by side with brass (which see) or bronze from the very earliest times, and the two metals are often men- tioned together. Tubal-cain is described as an artificer in lioth (Gn 4*"), and similar workers are referred to in the rei"ns of David (2 Ch 'J'- ") and Joash (2 Ch '24"). In l)t 8* both are named among the minerals of Palestine, and in Jos •22' tliev are among the spoils carried homo bv the tribe of Manasseh after the conquest of t anaan. They are mentioned in Nu 31'^ in a list of incombustible materials, and in Jor (5*, Ezk 22", among the im- purities of silver.
Iron is cla-ssed among the necessaries of life (Sir 311^) ; and the Scripture allusions testify to it« extensive and variwl applications. Is 00'' shows that its relative value in ancient time was much the eouie as at present, being less than that of
482
IRON
IRRIGATION
cold and silver, and greater than that of stone. Iron was used for wefipons of offence (Nii 35", Job •20-^ Jth 6" 9', 4 Mac U'"), "for war efuiriots (Jos IT"' '*, Jg 1" '!'• '"), and for defensive armuur (2 S 23', Rev 9"). Saws, hrirrows, and axes of iron were used by David in dealing (? ; see Driver, Sam. p. 288, and cf. art. Harrow) with his Ammonite prisoners (2 S 12^', 1 Ch 2{fi). Hands of iron are mentioned as instruments of torture in 4 Mac S'-' gw. 38 There are allusions to iron qates (Ac 12'"), fetters (Ps 105" 149«, 3 Mac 3-», 4 Mac ll'"), prison bars ( Ps lOT'"- ", Is 45^), yokes ( Dt 28", Jer 28"- ", Sir 28^), and liorns (as i)ro[ilietic symbols, 1 K 22", 2 Ch 18'"). Axes for felling trees were made of iron (Dt 19°, 1 K G»", Is Itf^), and also tools for stone- quarrs'ing (Sir 48") and stone - hewing (Dt 27', Jos 8^', 1 K 6'). There were iron* threshing instruments (Am 1'), images {Dn 5^), vessels (Jos e"- "), pans (Ezk 43), nails or bolts (1 Ch 22^, "Wis 13'°), pens or graving tools (Jer 17', Job 19'^). Iron was among the materials gathered by David for the building of tlie temnle (1 Cli 22"- " 29- '), among the merchandise of Tyre (Ezk 27'^' "), and of the apocalj'ptic Babylon (Rev 18'^). The whetting of iron tools is referred to in Pr 27", Eo 10'°. The heaviness of iron is noted in Sir 22'°. Its weight was reckoned by shekels (1 S 17'), or by talents (1 Ch 29').
As to the manufacture of iron, the ore is alluded to in Job 28^. The references to the ' iron furnace ' (Dt i^, 1 K 8", Jer 11^) may be either to the smelting furnace, in which the iron was separated from its ore, or to the blacksmith's forge, which is vividly described in Is 44'-, Sir 38^.
In many of the above passages, and in a number of others, 'iron' is used metaphorically. The description of the heavens and the earth as brass ind iron (Lv 26'", Dt 28^) is a picture of drought. The iron furnace is a striking figure for the severest suffering. Iron is a symbol of strength, and as such is employed of Asher (Dt 33'-"), of Israel (Mic 4'^), of the fourth kingdom in Nebuchad- nezzar's vision (Dn •2^-'^'^°'''"), and of behemoth (Job 40" 41"). Prophetic boldness is typified in Jer 1" by an iron pillar. On the other hand, iron is an emblem of Israel's obstinacy (Is 48^) and corruption (Jer 6^, Ezk 22'*, iron being an im- purity in silver). The rod of iron (Ps 2', Rev 2" 12° 19'°) symbolizes a rule of irresistible might.
One or two passages referring to iron have been reserved for special comment.
The ' bedstead of iron,' belonging to king Og of Bashan (Dt 3"), was probably a sarcophagus of basalt, the black iron -like stone of the region. This stone, and not literal iron, may possibly be intended also in Dt 8". See Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 11 ; and Driver, Deuteronomy, in loc.
In Jer 15" occurs the phrase jiSiP Sna ' northern iron' (AV), 'iron from the north' (RV), of which there are two different interpretations. On the one hand, it has been supposed to refer to the iron manufactured liy the Chalybians, which was re- puted to be of special excellence ; while, on the other hand, it has been understood simply as a figurative description of the northern invasion wnich Jeremiah elsewhere predicts as impending (1" 4« 6' 13-»).
In Ezk 27" we have niir;; Snj, which is rendered • bright iron ' in AV and RV, but ' wrought iron ' in RVm. LXX connects the phrase with the preceding clause, and translates ii ' karik (xiSijpos elpya<rfjfJi'os. The meaning is generally understood to be ' iron wares of rare workmanship ' (kunstreirh vcrarbeitetes Eisen — Siegfried in Kautzsch's AT). The Rabbis took the locality described to be in South Arabia, like Dedan, and the iron articles to