Most important of all are the writings which are more or less influenced by Greek philosophy. The only independent Jewish thinker is Philo, who plays no unimportant réle in the history of philosophy. The others assume an eclectic atti- tude towards the various Greek schools, and aim only at bringing their ideas into harmony with those of Judaism, several of them seeking at the same time to justify their dependence on Greek thinkers by maintaining that the latter originally borrowed from the Mosaic Law. The principal expedient to which these authors resort in order to harmonize the heterogeneous elements, is the allegorical interpretation of the Law and the Jewish history.* To this category belong the writings of Aristobulus (2nd cent. B.C.), of which only fragments are extant; the Stoicizing work on the authority of reason (the so-called Fourth Book of Maccabees); and the writings of Philo. A transition to this species of literature is exhibited by the Book of the Wisdom of Solomon, which, in spite of Gr. influence, still reminds us strongly of the Pal. Hokhma literature. Cf., further, artt. WIspoM in vol. iv., and PHILO, below, p. 197 ff.
LitPRaATURE (in addition to works on the history of Israel or of the Jews)—Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen wber neutest. Zeitgeschichte, 1862; Hausrath, Neutest. Zettgeschichte2, 1873- 77 [8rd ed. 1879 (Bd. i.)}; Wellhausen, Die Pharister und Sad- ducder, 1874; Raphall, Post-biblical History of the Jews, 1856 ; Stapfer, La Palestine au temps de Jésus-Christ, 1885, Les idées religieuses en Palestine a Vépoque de Jésus- Christ 2, 1878 ; Baumgarten, ‘Der national-jiidische Hintergrund der neutest. Geschichte’ (in J DU'h, 1864-65); Wieseler, ‘ Beitriige zur neu- test. Zeitgeschichte’ (in SK, 1875); Langen, Das Judenthum in Paldstina zur Zeit Christi, 1866 ; Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., 1883; Schiirer, GJV3, 3 vols. and Index vol., 1898-1902 [Eng. tr. (Z/P) from 2nd ed.]; Holtzmann, Newtest. Zeitgeschichte, 1895. For a fuller Biblio- graphy the reader may consult the work of Schiirer,
FRANTS BUHL.
TALMUD.—The Talmud (72a), meaning a ‘teach- ing,’ an ‘inference,’ or a ‘doctrine,’ is a term commonly applied to a collection of works embody- ing the Oral Law—n3 Syav min, lit. ‘the Torah by mouth’—handed down to the Jews by way of Tradition, in contradistinction to the Written Law —anzay ata, lit. ‘the Torah in writing.’ The origin of this Tradition is unknown: the common view of the medieval authorities, claiming the same Mosaic authorship and high antiquity for it as for the Scriptures, is uncritical. But, as it is closely connected with the history and development of the
* An interesting attempt to demonstrate the reasonableness of the laws about food is found in the Letter of Aristeas, 142 1f.
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58 TALMUD
TALMUD
hermeneutics of the Scriptures, its commencement may safely be dated back to the exilic period in which was first established the institution of the Synagogue, whose main function consisted in teaching and interpreting the word of God. The Hebrew term for ‘interpretation’ is Midrash (wn, ef. 2 Ch 13°"); and this term, like the Rab. term Kabbala@ (7)2p, matter received by way of Tra- dition), which includes the Prophets and the Hagio- grapha, may likewise, perhaps, be applied to certain portions of the canonical writings, e.g. Chronicles. The prominent feature of the Midrash, however, as an instrument for enlarging upon and expanding the word of the Scriptures, is best dis- cernible in the ancient Rab. productions, which, in spite of some hyperbolical expressions, provoked by heat of controversy, never seriously aspired to the dignity of Scripture. As a consequence, they for the most part properly kept apart text and interpretation, and thus clearly showed the process of expansion. The results gained by this method varied in their character with the nature of the Scripture passages, according as they were legal and ritual, or spiritual and homiletical. The former classes are comprised under the name Hdlakha (nz>n), signifying guidance, a rule of practice, a legal decision; and the term extends also to the usages, customs (Minhagim ony), ordinances (Lékanéth nmispn), and decrees (Gézéréth nina), for which there is little or no authority in the Scrip- tures. The latter (spiritual and homiletical) are classified under the term Haggdd@ (atin, Aram. 73y),* meaning a tale, a narrative, an explana- tion, a homily; and the term includes also the gnomic lore of the Rabbis, as well as stories and legends bearing upon the lives of post-biblical Jewish saints. Such topics as astronomy and astrology, medicine and magic, theosophy and mysticism, and similar subjects, falling mostly under the heading of folk-lore, pass as a rule also under the name of Haggada.
The schools active in this work of the interpreta- tion and expansion of the Scriptures extend over many centuries, and are known under various designations, each designation marking in suc- cession a different period.
i. The Séphérim (510), ‘Scribes,’ commencing with Ezra and going down to the Maccabsean period (450-100). Scarcely anything is known of their literary activity; the term ‘Words of the Sépherim’ (n= 737) is used indifferently by the Rabbis of Hdlakhéth dating from various ages, and implying in most cases not the author- ship of, but the authority for, certain given state- ments. Less vague are the Rab. references to the ‘Men of the Great Assembly’ (nbin3n np3> wx) and ‘their Remnant’ (‘a ‘p33 ‘x ‘¥), thought by some scholars to be identical with the Séphértm, or at least to have formed the executive of the latter.t+ To these are attributed not only certain sayings, suggestive, among other things, of their teaching activity (as ‘Raise many disciples,’ M.