13. Brit. Mus. Pap. 36, containing the Canons of Athanasius, in Sahidic. Described by Crum, op. cit., and to be edited by him shortly in the publications of the Text and Translation Society.
14, Papyrus at Turin, containing the Life of Athanasius and records of the Council of Nicza. Edited by F. Rossi (I Papiri Copti, 1884). ;
15. Legends of saints, homilies, etc., In papyyl, at Turin, edited by Rossi, op. cit. (1885-1892).
The numerous papyri (mostly small) contain-
ing letters and other documents which illustrate ecclesiastical life in Egypt, fall outside the scope of this article.
LITERATURE.—Kenyon, Paleography of Greek Papyri, 1899,
ch. i; the annual Archeological Reports of the Egypt Ex- |
ploration Fund, including sections on ancient, Greco-Roman, and Christian Egypt (from 1893) ; P. Viereck, ‘ Bericht tiber die altere Papyruslitteratur’ [before 1877] and ‘Die Papyruslit- teratur von den 70er Jahren bis 1898’ (in Jahresb. wi. d. Fort- schritte d. class. Altertwmswissenschaft, vols. 98 and 102); Seymour de Ricci, ‘ Bulletin Papyrologique’ in the Revue des Eiudes Grecques (intermittently from 1901); Archiv fiir Papy- rusforschung, edited by Wilcken (from 1900) ; Deissmann, Bibel- studien (1895) and Neue Bibelstudien (1897), with Eng. tr. of both series by A. Grieve (Bible Studies, 1901); Moulton, ‘Grammatical Notes from the Papyri,’ in Classical Review, xv. 81, 434, Eapositor, Apr. 1901 and Feb. 1903; the principal publications of papyri (Egypt Exploration Fund, British Museum, Berlin Museum, Rainer collection at Vienna, Lord Ambherst’s collection, etc.);. and works cited in the course of
this article. F, G. KENYON
WAGES.—The usual OT term for ‘wages’ is 13¥ sakhar ; less frequently the cognate nqa¥2 maskoreth, and abys pé'ullah. jany’ethnan is the reward paid to a prostitute. As wages are the price paid or the reward given for labour, n> méhir, ‘ price,’ may sometimes * be translated ‘wages’ or ‘hire’; and conversely the terms for ‘wages’ are sometimes translated ‘reward.’+ The usual NT term is pcos, misthos. The term 6ydénov, opsdnion, is translated ‘wages’ in Lk 3 (of soldiers), Ro 678 (‘the wages of sin is death’), and 2 Co 11% According to Sanday-Headlam on Ro 6%, éywvrov ‘ =(1) ‘‘ provi- sion-money, ration-money, or the rations in kind given to troops”; (2) in a more general sense, ‘“wages.”’ It is used in the Apocrypha of wages paid to soldiers.
(A) OLD TESTAMENT.—There are only a few re- ferences to wages in the Old Testament, because in Israel, as in the ancient world generally, most work was done either by members of the family or by slaves. We may, however, take ‘ wages’ in a broad sense as the price of labour without regard to the status of the labourer. From this point of view we may consider wages as paid to five classes: (i.) the farmer and his family living chiefly on the actual produce of their work ; (ii.) relations outside the family in its narrow modern sense; (iii.) slaves ; (iv.) priests, soldiers, hired labourers, etc., giving all their time to a master ; (v.) craftsmen, smiths, carpenters, etc., working for different customers. It may be as well to say at once that the available data are extremely meagre, so that only general statements are possible.
i. A farming family living chiefly by its own labour. on its own land depended for the return for its labour on its industry, the fertility of the land, and the stage of development of agriculture. These, of course, varied: for the general condition of things, see AGRICULTURE (in vol. i.), PALESTINE (in vol. iii.), etc. But the accounts which we have of the families of Saul and of Jesse of Bethlehem suggest that in earlier times the yeomen-farmers, as we should call them, obtained a good return for their labour. The prophets of the 8th cent. (Is 3" 58 10%, Am 26-8 39 10 51-12) and the Book of Nehe- miah (ch. 5) show that towards the close of the monarchy, and after the Return, the small farmers were burdened with various charges,§ taxes, usury, ete., and hardly made a, livelihood.
ii. Remuneration of dependents. —'There were often associated with the actual family, more distant relations and other dependents. These shared the work and the life of the family, prob- ably, as a rule, on no fixed terms, but receiving, as we should say, board and lodging; living ‘as
* e.g. Mic 311, teg. Ru 212,
+1 Mac 328 1492, and (apparently) 1 Es 456.
§ This is rather an inference for the period of the close of the monarchy.
TCO
358 WAGES
WAGES
a eee NN ry SS
one of the family,’ but often with inferior comfort and less consideration. Thus the ‘ poor relation’ would be provided for; and ‘the poor within thy gates and the Levite,’ who are so often commended to the charity of the pious Israelite (Ex 23", Dt 1218. 19 1426-29 157. 8), would no doubt be expected to render some service to their benefactors. Thus Moses kept the flocks of his father-in-law Jethro (Ex 3'); and Jacob, at the beginning of his sojourn with Laban, rendered similar service for board and lodging (Gn 29). The sequel (cf. § iv.) shows that dependents might also become hired servants at fixed wages.
ili. Remuneration of slaves.—Their remuneration, Jike that of the previous class, consisted of ‘all found,’ and varied according to the circumstances, character, and goodwill of the master. We should gather that the slaves were well treated, as is commonly the case in the East. See also art. SERVANT in vol. iv.