5. Adad.—Shamash, Ninib, and Nergal, as we have seen, symbolize the sun in general, and in its twofold aspects as a beneticial and a harmful power. But, besides the destruction brought about by the fierce rays of the summer sun, Babylonia and Assyria suffered from the even greater havoc wrought by the rainstorms, accompanied by de- structive winds, during the wintry season, which lasted for almost six months. The god who, in the systematized pantheon, personifies these winter storms is Adad, who was also known, in Assyria at least, as Ramman, i.e. ‘the thunderer.’ He bears some resemblance to the old Bel of Nippur, who, as the god of the earth and of the atmo- sphere immediately above it, has also the traits of a storm-god.
Besides Adad and Ramman, there are various other names by which the god is known (apart from numerous epithets), such as Martu, Mer, and Bur, which may be taken as indications that he likewise, just as Ishtar, Ninib, and Shamash, has absorbed the réles of other local deities who per- sonified the wind and storm. On seals and in sculptured scenes he is depicted as armed with the thunderbolt and lightning; and, since many of the myths of Babylonia deal with the conflict of the powers of nature, Adad is rarely absent in them, being generally, indeed, assigned a promi- nent réle. But even the destructive winter rains and storms have their favourable aspects, since they are essential to the fructification of the earth; hence Adad is viewed also as a god who brings blessings to the fields. It was essential, therefore, to propitiate him in order to secure oneself against his too great violence, which would result in havoc instead of blessing. His curse was particularly powerful ; and, accordingly, at the close of their inscriptions, Babylonian and Assy- rian rulers alike are found invoking Adad to bring famine and devastation upon their enemies by a failure of the crops. Instead of bringing forth plants, he can cause weeds and thistles to spring up. Woe, therefore, to him whom Adad desires.to punish! The ethical element is also introduced into the conceptions concerning Adad, and he is very often associated with Shamash as the god who punishes the wrong-doer and secures justice for one who has been injured. Shamash and Adad appear, indeed, so frequently in hymns and in oracles as ‘the lords of Justice,’ the Divine judges, that one is justified in interpreting this associa- tion in terms of a doctrine forming part of the Babylonian theology, according to which the specifically beneficial and specifically violent mani- festations of nature were combined to give ex- pression to the view that good and evil, blessings and curses, are dealt out on the basis of justice.
RELIGION OF BABYLONIA
RELIGION OF BABYLONIA
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The consort of Adad is Shala, who, however, is merely a pale reflexion of the male deity, and
plays no independent part whatsoever. She is not even as frequently mentioned by the side of Adad as are the consorts of some of the other
gods.
6. Marduk.—The political supremacy acquired by the city of Babylon c. 2250 B.c., and maintained with some interruptions, notably during the Kas- site rule (c. 1730 to 1150 B.c.), when the attempt was made to reinstate Bel of Nippur as the head of the pantheon, brought about such important changes in the old Babylonian pantheon that one is tempted to divide the Babylonian religion into two periods—the one prior to the supremacy of Babylon, the other after this supremacy had been secured. With Babylon as the capital of the united States of the Euphrates Valley, the advance of the local deity, Marduk, to a position at the head of the pantheon naturally followed. Origin- ally a solar deity, and symbolizing more specifi- cally, like Ninib, the sun of the spring solstice, which triumphs over the storms of the winter season, Marduk becomes ‘the lord’ par excellence ; and this supreme position is emphasized by his actually assuming the dignity and name of Bel— hitherto the designation of the chief deity of Nippur. Such a change involved a general shift- ing in the relationship of the gods of the old Babylonian pantheon to one another, with the result that under the influence of the priests of Babylon an entirely new theological system was evolved. Ancient myths were transformed so as to accord to Marduk the place due to him. Im- portant acts, such as the regulation of the order of the Universe and the creation of mankind— hitherto ascribed to Bel of Nippur, to Ea of Eridu, or to a goddess Aruru—were transferred to Mar- duk. The incantation rituals were to a large ex- tent altered with a view to establishing the position of Marduk as the ultimate source of healing, of protection, and of all blessings. The gods were represented as forming a court around their chief, hailing Marduk as their leader, and paying him homage. The hymns composed in his honour and the prayers addressed to him by the rulers embody sentiments that might be regarded as an index of a decided advance towards a monotheistic concep- tion of the Universe, and unquestionably the steady growth of the Marduk cult had its outcome in giving to the Babylonian religion a far more spiritual character than it had hitherto acquired. While the cults of En-lil at Nippur, of Sin at Ur and Harran, of Shamash at Sippar and Larsa, and of Ea at Eridu, were maintained, and these places continued to be regarded as religious centres of the first rank, the temple of Marduk at Babylon, known as E-sagila, i.e. ‘the lofty house,’ became the central sanctuary of the land, and around the sacred area in which it stood chapels and sanctuaries were erected, as formerly at Nippur, to all the chief gods, who could thus be worshipped in one place. True, certain concessions were made to the traditions of the past, such as making Ea the father of Marduk; but the dependence of Marduk upon Ea involved in such a relationship was cancelled by the readiness and zeal with which Ea acknowledged the superiority of his son.