8. Girru-Nusku.—Another phase of solar worship in Babylonia is represented by the conception of a deity symbolizing the element of fire. In the Babylonian pantheon this fire-god commonly bears the name of Girru* (formerly read Gibil), whereas in Assyria he is generally known as Nusku.+ Though decidedly to be classed among the great gods of the pantheon, Girru plays a réle in the incantation texts rather than in the historical inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria. He is invoked in the incantation rituals compiled as a means of driving away the demons and evil spirits ;
* See Zimmern, Keilinschri/ten u. das Alte Testament, p. 417.
t With various by-forms like Nashukh, Nashku, etc. See Johns, An Assyrian Doomsday Book, pp. 12-14.
and this is due to the prominence held by fire in the ritual. Images of the demons—in wood, wax, and other materials—were made, and burned to the accompaniment of incantations ; and, as the images were consumed, it was believed that the demons themselves were destroyed. Night being a favour- ite time for the exorcizing rites, Nusku was brought into association with the moon - god; although the fire symbolized by Nusku is, with- out much question, the heat of the sun. On the other hand, the possibility of differentiating Nusku from Girru is furnished by the relationship which the former is made to bear to Nebo. Like Nebo, Nusku is called ‘the bearer of the brilliant sceptre’ and the ‘wise god’; and, when ideographically written, the god is designated as ‘the one wielding the sceptre and the stylus.’ Girru, on the other hand, is brought into connexion with Anu, the god of heaven, and with Ea, the god of the deep,— with Anu by virtue of the belief which identified fire with the heat of the sun, with Ea because of the part that fire plays in the development of civilization, and particularly of the arts, of which Ea is the patron. While, therefore, in both in- stances the fire which they symbolize is associated with wisdom, in the case of Nusku this wisdom is specialized, as it were, while Girru is accorded more general and less definite traits. The ethical phases are also somewhat more emphasized in the case of Girru, though, as the conqueror of demons, both Nusku and Girru become forces that are hostile to wrong-doing and crime. While in this way we may still in a measure follow the process which led to the amalgamation of two fire-deities who once had an existence independent of one another, and belonged probably to two different localities, in the religious literature this process of amalgamation is complete. Nusku is viewed as the messenger of Marduk, who carries the words of Marduk to his father Ea, while Girru acts in a similar capacity in association with Marduk and Ea,
9. Ashur.— The dependency of Assyria upon Babylonian culture extends into the domain of religious doctrines and rites. The contributions of the Assyrian literati to the religious literature preserved in the brick library of Assurbanipal were limited in number and of a minor character. They represented the adaptation of Babylonian models to conditions prevailing in Assyria, rather than original contributions ; and, similarly, in the rites observed in the temples of Assyria we have Baby- lonian rituals modified so far as was needed, and still further elaborated. It is natural, therefore, to find the Assyrian pantheon practically identical in character with the one produced in the south. To be sure, local cults continued to exist in large numbers both in Babylonia and Assyria; but the movement which, as a result of various factors, led to the singling out among the large number of local cults of the group of deities set forth above, who formed what may be called the active pantheon of Babylonia, was extended to Assyria. There we meet with the doctrine of the triad, involving the recognition of three great powers controlling the Universe, as well as with the singling out of the forces of nature such as Sin, Shamash, Ninib, Nergal, Adad, Nusku, who, to- gether with Ishtar, the symbol of fertility and vegetation, constitute the great gods invoked by the Assyrian kings in their official inscriptions. That less attention was paid to Marduk in Assyria than in Babylonia, is not surprising ; for, although recognized as the head of the Babylonian pan- theon, to Assyrian rulers Marduk was also the patron deity of the city of Babylon, which was the natural rival of the centre chosen as the seat of Assyrian rule. It was chiefly when the Assyrian
Si
RELIGION OF BABYLONIA
RELIGION OF BABYLONTA = 547
kings wished to emphasize their control over the
affairs of us that they invoked the name of
Marduk ; and even in such a case they preferred the name of En-lil or Bel, which, though adopted as the designation of Marduk, disguised the close association of the god with the city of Babylon. In like manner, the consort of Marduk is generally called Nin-lil or Belit in the Assyrian inscriptions, instead of Sarpanit. There was less objection to paying homage to Nebo, and indeed there are indications that the Assyrian rulers at various pes endeavoured to play off Nebo against
arduk. It can hardly be accidental that one ruler Adad-nirari III. (812-783 B.C.) should go so far as to declare that Nebo is the only god whom mankind should trust; and one feels likewise that when Assurbanipal attributes his inspiration to collect the remains of Babylonian literature to Nebo and Tashmit, he is aiming a blow at the rival Marduk in thus implying that the wisdom of Babylonia is the work of the god of Borsippa and not of the god of Babylon.