Before leaving this large subject, the importance of which for an understanding of the alison of Babylonia and Assyria justifies the rather elaborate treatment accorded to it here, it is necessary to consider briefly one more of its phases, which, because of its direct bearing on the fate of the individual, is of considerable importance. The mnystery of sdeep, with its most characteristic mani- festation, the dream, profoundly impressed people in a primitive stage of culture, and continued to do so long after they had cast aside many of the beliefs belonging to the first attempts at the development of civilization. One could control, at least in large measure, one’s thoughts and fancies while awake, but what one saw and heard while asleep appeared to be manifestations directly brought to one’s attention through out- side forces. The gods, who showed their power in storms and earthquakes, who made themselves heard in thunder, and who spoke indirectly to men by signs written in the heavens, gave a direct message in the dreams that they sent to those lying in the embrace of sleep. Every dream re- presented such a direct message; and, whether we turn to early Babylonian rulers like Gudea (c. 3000 B.C.), who receives instructions through a dream to build the temple E-ninnu to his favourite god Ninib,* or to a late Assyrian king like Assur- banipal, who is encouraged to go forth to battle by a vision at night of Ishtar clothed in battle array,} we find throughout the duration of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion the same profound significance attached to dreams.
Hence, in addition to the moon, sun, planet, and star portents, and handbooks for guidance in inter- preting ‘birth’ and ‘animal’ portents, manuals were prepared that might serve the priests in inter- preting for anxious inquirers the meaning of the visions that they saw during the hours of sleep. While here, again, the endeavour might be made to provide for all contingencies, the task would be even more hopeless than in the case of hand- books for ‘birth’ portents, and the priests would have to be content to collect as many instances as possible of dreams and the interpretations vouch- safed in the past, and to regard these as typical instances which might serve as guides for the new dreams that would constantly be brought to their notice. A careful study of these collections will enable us to understand the principles which in general controlled the interpretations ; and, even though in many instances we shall fail to under- stand the basis for the interpretations, we gain the conviction that the dream interpreter pro- ceeded in some methodical way, and did not follow caprice, or allow himself to be led by happy guesses. Thus, in the case of animals appearing to one in dreams, we note that certain animals
* See Thureau-Dangin’s essay, ‘Le Songe de Goudéa’ (Comptes
rendus de l’ Académie d’ Inscriptions, 1900, pp. 112-122. + See Schrader’s Ketlinschriftliche Bibliothek, vol. ii. p. 251.
RELIGION OF BABYLONIA 563
portend misfortune, while others represent a favourable omen. A dog portends sorrow, a lion success, a goat indicates the death of a son, a stag the death of a daughter, a jackal Divine favour, a fish power, and so on. One can also see the natural association of ideas which suggested that a moun- tain appearing in a dream was an indication of unrivalled strength, and that salt meant protec- tion ; while, on the other hand, the connexion be- tween a date and distress is less conspicuous ; but what appears arbitrary to us may properly be attributed to our ignorance of the ideas that the Babylonians and Assyrians associated with the objects in question, and furthermore one must bear in mind that association of ideas formed only one factor in the science of dream interpretation. Past experience of the supposed connexion between some occurrence and a dream formed a second factor; and besides these two there must have been a variety of considerations that served as guides in the development of this science. Over and above this, no doubt, a certain scope was allowed to the judgment of the individual priest, who was obliged, however, to exercise due pre- caution to make sure that his judgment was based upon solid ground, derived from. his experi- ence, and from his study of the manuals that were produced in connexion with the temple organiza- tion. Toa far greater degree than in the case of other branches of the omen literature which we have considered, the dreams of an individual had a bearing on his own fate. It was a message meant primarily for him; and only when he to whom the gods communicated their purpose was also the occupant of the throne or belonged to the royal household, did the dream assume a wide significance, involving the general welfare. The dream portents thus bring us still closer to the circle of the direct and personal influence exerted by the prevailing religion upon worshippers in their private capacity.
5. Prayers and hymns.—Recourse to incanta- tions and omens, we have seen, was perfectly com- patible with the development of advanced concep- tions regarding the chief gods recognized in the systematized pantheon; and the prominent ed played by incantation rituals and by omen collec- tions in religious practice down to the latest days in no way hindered the growth of other branches of religious literature in Babylonia, and the ex- tension of these branches to Assyria. The belief that the ills and misfortunes of life were due to the mischievous influence of demons and spirits, either acting independently or at the instigation of those who had the power to control their actions, was too deeply ingrained in the flesh and blood of the people to be seriously affected by the view that the gods, so much more powerful than demons or witches, were on the whole favourably inclined towards mankind, and inflicted punishment upon them only for sufficient cause, chief among which, to be sure, was the neglect of proper homage and devotion to them. The theolowing! system devised by the schools was forced to take cognizance of the popular beliefs, and indeed strengthened them by thus emphasizing the contrast that existed between gods and demons.