In the conduct of their business Christians are required to set an example to the world. They are to be honest (1 Th 41-), to owe no man anything (Ro 13®), to avoid covetousness which leads to dis- honesty (He 13^), and to refuse to go into partner- ship with extortioners (1 Co 5"), Business disputes between Christians are not to be carried before heathen tribunals (1 Co 6^-^), The actual giving up of rights may sometimes be demanded by faith- fulness to the gospel. It is evident that, at any rate in Corinth, converts found it difficult at first in ordinary business dealings to rise to the new standard. Somewhat later arose another danger, w hich is still familiar, that men should use religion in order to improve their business prospects (1 Ti 6^). This inevitably led to a low commercial morality, such as that to which Hernias confesses {Mand. iii.). Even as a Christian he had been for some years accustomed to regard lying in business transactions as quite permissible.
While the first Christians looked upon all honest occupations as honourable, they refused to see any- thing sacred in the vested interests of trades which only exist by wronging others. At Philippi St, Paul put an end to the exploitation of the girl with second sight (Ac 16^^^-). and at Ephesus showed no tenderness for the profits of idolatrous silver- smiths (19^''"), It is evident that persecution was often instigated by pagans whose business had been thus affected by the new faith, St. Paul experienced this in the two instances mentioned,
164 CiESAR, CiESAR'S HOUSEHOLD
C^SAR, CiESAE'S HOUSEHOLD
and Pliny's letter to Trajan testifies that there was much feeling against Christians amongst those who sold fodder for the victims used in heathen sacrifices.
LiTBRATURE. — Besides Commentaries on the texts mentioned, see E. von Dobschiitz, Christian Life in tlie Primitive Church, Eng. tr., London and N.Y., 1904, passim; W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, Loudon, 1893, p. 199 f.
C. T. DiMONT.
0
C;ESAR, CiESAR'S HOUSEHOLD.— In origin the name ' Ca-sar,' whicli has had such a wonder- ful history, culminating in the German Raise?' and the Russian Tsar, was simply a cognoiyien (or sur- name), indicating one branch of the gens lulia, one of the old patrician families of Rome, which was said to have been descended from iEneas of Troy and Venus, through their son Tulus (Ascanius). The earliest known member of the family is Sex. lulius Ca?sar, prajtor in 208 B.C. ; the greatest is of course C. lulius Caesar, the dictator (lived from about 100 to 44 B.C.). The name was kept by all the early Emperors except Vitellius (and even he used it sometimes), in spite of the fact that after Nero no Emperor had a drop of Ct^sarian blood in his veins. The complete official names of the Emperors who reigned during the hundred years following the birth of Christ are Imperator Caesar Augustus (see Augustus), Tiberius Cajsar Augus- tus (see Tiberius), Gains Caesar Germanicus (nicknamed Caligula [q.v.l) (A.D. 37-41), Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (see Claud- ius), Imperator Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (see Nero), Imperator Servius Sul- picius Galba Caesar Augustus (9 June 68-15 Jan. 69) (see Galea), Imperator Marcus Otho Ctesar Augustus (15 Jan. -25 Apr. 69) (see Otho), Impera- tor Aulus Vitellius Caesar or Aulus Vitellius Imperator Germanicus (2 Jan. 69-20[?] Dec. 70) (see Vitellius), Imperator Vespasianus Caesar Augustus (69-79) (see Vespasian), Imperator Titus Vespasianus Caesar Augustus (71-81) (see TiTUS), Imperator Domitianus Caesar Augustus (81-96) (see DoMlTlAN), Imperator Nerva Augustus Caesar (96-98) (see Nerva), Imperator C.-esar Nerva Traianus Augustus (97-117) (see Trajan). This enumeration sliows how fixed the name Caesar had become as part of the Emperor's name, quite irre- spective of relationship. It will also explain how in all the places of the NT but two the name ' Ciesar ' alone (with or without the article) is familiarly used, as equivalent simply to 'the Emperor.' In the Gospels the reference is to Tib- erius (cf. Mk l2'-»-" and parallels), in Acts and Philippians (4^^) to Nero. Where the historian seeks to date an event, he is naturally more precise (Ciesar Augustus, Lk 2', Tiberius Caesar, Lk 3').
There are two aspects in whicii the Cajsar appears in the Gospels. In the section Mk 12'^"" it is the question of giving tribute to Ca;sar that comes up. The inhabitants of Judaea, a Roman Imperial province, governed by one of tlje Emperor's agents, called a procurator, were by law bound to pay tax to the Emjjeror. The term used, ktjvctos, is the Latin word census, which means ' census ' in our sense, but much more. The census paper was in the Roman Empire also an income- and property- tax return, on the basis of which the assessment of tax was made by the Imj)erial officials. Hence the word in the Gospels might almost be translated 'inc^ome-tax.* Luke alters his original to the good (ireek word <p6pos (Lat. trihutum, war-tax ; cf. Lk 23-). The second aspect in which the Ciesar appears in the Gospels is that of the Messiah's rival to lordsiiip over the chosen people. Jesus is charged with ' saying that he is an anointed king '
(Lk 232 . cf. jn igiz-w^ Ac 17'), for so we ought to translate it. When Pilate asks Him if He is the King of the Jews, He casts the word back to him, ' You say it, the word is yours' (Burkitt, Evan- gelion da-MepharresM, 1904, ii. 58). Throughout the Apostolic Age and later, the Christians con- tinue to use of their King in the spiritual sense the very same epithets as the pagans use of the Emperor. This fact must have accentuated the hostility of the Empire to the Church.