Literature. — In addition to the Literature named in the article, the following may be consulted : H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, London, 1875 ; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthuins, Leipzig, 1884 ; A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. [Leipzig, 1S93] p. 163 fif., ii. [1897] p. 538 fE. The subject receives some discussion in Church Histories and Histories of Doctrine. Of articles in Dictionaries special mention may be made of that in DCB by G. Salmon. ARTHUR S. PeAKE.
CALF.—' Calf ' (Ac 7«, He 9i-- ^\ Ptev 4^) should be rendered ' ox ' or ' steer.' 1. Tlie expiatory virtue of sacrifices of blood formed part of the Semitic belief from earliest times. In Lv 17^^ the reason given is that the life or soul of the animal is in the blood (cf. Gn 9^ Dt 12-^), which gives piacular efficacy to the sacrifice (see art. ' Sacrifice ' in the Bible Dictionaries). 2. The second of the four living creatures in the Apocalypse had the likeness of an ox, presumably as the symbol of strength. It was certainly for this reason that the buU was chosen as the symbol of Jahweh by Aaron (Ac 7*^) and Jeroboam (B. Duhm, Theol. der Propheten, Bonn, 1875, p. 47 ; A. Dillmann, Exodus, Berlin, 1880, p. 337 ; J. Robertson, Early Eeligion of Israel, Edinburgh, 1892, pp. 215-220 ; similarly Kuenen and Vatke). The four living creatures remind us of certain of the signs of the zodiac (bull, angel, lion, eagle), and possibly they have some connexion with that source (so Mofl'att and Gunkel). Irenseus (III. xi. 8) associates the living creatures with the four evangelists, and holds that the 'calf,' signifying the priestly and sacrificial character of Jesus, is the symbol of St. Luke. These traditions continued after his time, but there was considerable variety in the apijlica- tion of the symbols (see Zahn, Forschungen, Erlan- gen, 1881-1903, ii. 257 ff. ; Swete, Gospel according to St. 3Iark% London, 1902, p. xxxvifl".).
F. W. WORSLEY.
CALIGULA. — Caligula ('little boots') was a pet name given by the soldiers in his father's army to the boy who was afterwards known officially as Gaius Csesar Germanicus. In a similar way the name ' Caracalla ' or ' Caracallus ' was applied popu- larly to Imperator Csesar Marcus Aurelius Antoni-
CALIGULA
CALL, CALLED, CALLING 167
nus (A.D. 19S-217), and ' Elagabalus' to Imperator Csesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (A.D. 218-222). These sobriquets had no official currency, but were useful as brief ways of referring to the names of Emperors, whose ancestors by nature or adoption had names so like their own, that con- fusion was certain to occur in conversation or writ- ing about them. Caligula, wlio was named at birth Gains lulius Csesar, was the third son of the distinguished general Germanicus, and Agrippina (the elder). As Germanicus was a son of Drusus, the adopted son of Augustus, and as Agrippina was a daughter of (Agrippa and) lulia, the daughter of Augustus, Caligula was thus both by nature and by adoption a great-grandson of the Emperor Augustus. He is commonly said to have been born in the camp of his father (Tac. Ann. i. 41); but Suetonius {Gaiits, 8) points out that the boy was born before his father left for his province. The date of his birth was 31 Aug., A.D. 12. From a very early time he displayed signs of the insanity which was to break out in the most signal manner when he attained to manhood. His mania took three forms — inordinate lust, inordinate vanity, and a homicidal tendency. No doubt, as in the case of other Emperors, we must allow for the influence of evil-minded gossip on our historical records, but there remains ample evidence to justify this state- ment. He Avas proclaimed Emperor on the death of his grand-uncle Tiberius on 18 March, A.D. 37. He was offered the honorary title of pater patrice in the early days of 38, and died on 24 Jan. 41 at the hands of an assassin, C. Cassius Chaerea, in one of the vaults of the palace on the Palatine HiU. He was thrice married, first to lunia Claudilla, daughter of a patrician, M. Silanus.* She died in childbirth, and he afterwards married Lollia Paul- ina, daughter of M. Lollius, whom he had robbed from her husband JNIemmius. He soon afterwards divorced her. His third wife was Milonia Csesonia. Caligula left no descendants.
Caligula's reign was as uneventful as it was short. The machine of government had been left in such perfect condition by Augustus and Tiberius that the recklessness of a Caligula could not in such a short time do serious harm. But one thing he could and did do : he wasted the savings of his prede- cessors. He succeeded to the Empire because he was the personal heir of Tiberius, not because he had been in any sense his partner in the Empire. It was the theory of the principate that it came to an end on the death of each Emperor, and that power returned to the Senate and people as in the days of the Republic ; but in practice it was diffi- cult, if not impossible, to pass over the Emperor's heir, and Gains was thus proclaimed Emperor. His reign began with a relaxation of many of the restric- tions of Tiberius' rule, but his only aim throughout was the pursuit of excitement and pleasure. There is no need to detail the countless variety of his in- sane actions. Towards the end of his principate he revived the reign of terror, which was such a feature of Tiberius' time.