Homiletics and Theology : — R. Rainy, Expositor's Bible, ' Pbilippians," London, 1893; H. C. G. Moule, Cambridge Greek Testament, ' Fhilippians,' Cambridge, 1897, Philippian Studies, London, 1897 (full of sympathetic insight); C. J. Vaugban, Lectitres on Philippian^'^, Cambridge, 1864, Greek Text with Notes, London, 1885 ; J. Eadie, Commentary to the Ep. to the Phitippians, do., 1857 (still very useful) ; H. von Soden, Der Brief des Apostels Paulus an die Philipper, Frei- burg i. B., 1889 (2Tubingen, 1906).
There is a whole library on 25-n ; see Meyer's Kommentart for list of earlier books. Noteesp. E. H. Gifford, The Incarnation, London, 1897 (very thorough but explains terms too rigidly) ; A. B. Bruce, The Humiliation of Chrisf. Edinburgh, ISSl ; D. Somerville, St. Paul's Conception of Christ, do., 1897, p. 188 f.; J. B. Lightfoot, Philippiansi, pp. 127-137; W. Weifienbach, Auslegung der Stelle Philipper, Se-tt, Karlsruhe, 1884 ; and indeed all commentaries.
For criticism a good account is given in R. A. Ltpsius, in Handkommentar zum NT-, Freiburg i. B., 1891; T. Zahn, Introduction to the NT, Eng. tr., 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1909, vol. i. (excellent); and the problems are luminously set and answered in J. Moffatt, op, cit. supra, p. 165 ff., where the literature is also given. J. Weiss, Die Schriften des NT-, Gottingen, 1906-07, ii. 372-390, gives a good popular exegesis ; see also -Ea-p, 8th ser., vii. [1914] 481 ff., viii. [1914] 143 ft., 457 flf., ix. [1915] 235 £f., 481 ff. D. MACKENZIE.
PHILO. — Philo of Alexandria, the Jew, a con- temporary of the apostles, was so highly esteemed by early Christian theologians as to be counted among the Christian authors (Jerome, de Vir. III. 11), and his significance for the Apostolic Age is no less clearly recognized by modern scholars.
1. Life. — About the life of Philo we have only very scanty information ; apart from occasional remarks in his own writings (in particular in Flaccum and de Virtut. et Leg. ad Gaium) one has to refer to Josephus, Ant. xvill. viii. 1 [259 f.], and, for the background, to the papyri dealing with persecutions of the Jews in Alexandria.* The Rabbinical literature does not mention this Hellenistic leader of Alexandria.
Philo belonged to one of the noblest and wealthiest Jewish families of Alexandria. His brother Alexander was alabarch (or arabarch, i.e. in control of the custom-houses on the Arabian frontier), and he presented the magnificent brazen doors for the inner court of the Temple in .leru- salem (Jos. BJ v. v. 3 [205]). His nephew Tiberius Alexander took service with the Romans, and, renouncing his Judaism, became a high official ; he was governor of Juda>a before A.D. 48, and after- wards governor of Egypt. In 69-70, at the siege of Jerusalem, he was chief commander in Titus' headquarters (Jos. Ant. XX. v. 2 [100] ; BJ H. xv. 1 [309], xviii. 7 [492] ; IV. x. 6 [616] ; V. i. 6 [45], xii. 2 [510] ; VI. iv. 3 [237]). Philo had had the
• E. von Dobschiitz. * Jews and Antiaemites in Ancient Alex- andria,' AJTh viii. 4 [1904] 728-765.
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usual trainiM'; of a Greek boy of <;ood family : he had studied ^niinmar, iiiatliciiiatics, music, and rhetoric ; he had acquired a jjood knowledjje of Greek literature and obtained a fairly profound philosophical education. His style is near to Attic classicism ; he imitates Plato so much that people said : i) IlXaTui/ ^iXwriffi, rj '^i^ul' TrXaTwcffei (Jerome, de Vir. III. 11) : the one must liave copied the other. But, in accordance with the prevailing literary taste, he uses any kind of style that may be appropriate to his purpose. He Iiad also heard Jewish interpreters of the Torah, prob- ablj' in the synagogue ; and it seems as if, like other serious young men, e.i/. Josephus and Seneca, he had entered into temporary retreat and held intercourse with ascetic circles in order to gain perfection in theosophy (de Spec. Leg. iii. 1 [ed. Alangey, ii. 299]). Incidentally he mentions a pil- grimage to Jerusalem [de Providentia [ap. Eus. Prmp. Evang. VIII. xiv. 64]). In his later life he came into publicity much against his own desire. In consequence of the anti-Semitic riots at Alex- andria under Flaccus, Pliilo, as the leader of a Jewish embassy, went to Rome to see the Emperor Caligula. His mission, according to his own report, was not successful. His opponent was the same Alexandrian litterateur, Apion, against whom Josephus wrote his two books.
From Eus. HE II. xviii. 8 one might infer that Philo remained at Rome until the time of Claudius (Jerome thinks rather of a second voyage), and that under the new regime Philo was honoured by the Senate, while his works (in particular in Flac.cum and de Legatione ad Gaium) found a place in the public library. That PhUo, while at Rome, met the apostle Peter (ib. xvii. 1) is a legend of the same kind as the legends of an exchange of letters between St. Paul and Seneca, or of rela- tions between St. Luke or Mary Magdalene and Galen the famous physician. The papyri report, in the time of Claudius, a hearing of the Alex- andrian anti-Semites against King Agrippa, but do not mention Philo.
Philo's significance does not rest so much upon his personality as upon his numerous writings. He represents a mode of thought evidently wide- spread at the time.