11. Acquisition of Gaul. — The next stage in the growth of the Roman Empire is the acquisition of Gaul, which corres])onds roughly to modern France, by the generalship of Gains .Julius Cawar (58-49 B.C.). Ca'sar was one of the three most powerful men in the State, but was without means, and was anxious to obtain a command which would enable him to emulate Pomjiey's achievements in the East and eventually obtain supreme power. By the arrangement of the coalition in 60 he obtained the provinces of Cisalpine (iaul and lUyricnm for five years (58-54). Transalpine Gaul was shortly afterwards adiled. The details of ('.-esar's stubborn campaigns need not be here entered into. In addi- tion to conquering the whole of Transalpine Gaul (except Gallia Narbonensis, already a Konia« pro-
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ROMAN LAW IN THE NT
vince), he twice crosseJ the Khineand twice entered Britain. His period of command was extended for a further five years. His conquests secured Konie a nortliern frontier and saved the Empire for centuries.
12. Civil War. — In 49 B.C. civil war broke out, and for a number of years there could be no thought of extending the Empire. During the civil war, the eastern provinces, rougiilj- speaking, were on Pom pey's side and the western on Ciesar's ; later, Antony held most of the east against Octavian.
13. Rome under the Emperors. — In 31 B.C. Egyjit was acquired by Octavian, and henceforward the Roman Emperors reigned there as kings. About tlie same time Octavian re-organized tlie eastern provinces. On 16th Jan. 27 B.C. the provinces were apportioned between the Senate and Augustus (see Province). Though the greater part of Spain had long been part of the provincial S5'stem, the hardy tribes of the northwest, the Cantabri and Astures, had never been subdued. Between 26 and 20 B.C. Augustus and Agrippa succeeded in quelling them, and a new province, Lusitania, was formed. On the deatli of the client-king Amyntas in 25 B.C. all the northern and western part of his kingdom was taken over and made into the province Galatia. The boundaries of this province changed witli the changing sphere of duty which covered all tlie central part of Asia Minor. It retained its importance down to A.D. 72, when Cappadocia became a consular province with an army, whereas in A.D. 17 it had been created merely a procu- ratorial province. Augustus spent 21-19 B.C. regulating the East, and in 16-13 visited Gaul. There lie aimed at fixing the north-west frontier of the Empire. His first intention was to fix the limit at the Elbe and the Danube. The tribes of tlie Tyrol, the Rhaeti, Vindelici, and Norici were conquered in 15, and the Alpine tribes in 14-13. After a number of campaigns the dream of an Elbe frontier had to be given up, and the Rhine was reluctantly substituted. The Rhine-Danube fron- tier is much longer than the other, and was there- fore much more difficult and expensive to defend. The reigri of Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) saw the annexa- tion of Cappadocia, as has been said. Gains (Cali- gula) (37-41 ) pur-sued a somewhat retrograde policy. He restored to Antiochus of Commagene the realm which Tiberius had taken from his father. A similar policy was pursued in Palestine. In Thrace the former kingdom of Cotys was given to his son Rhoemetalces, and further territory in Thrace was added to it. To Polerao was gifted Pontus Pole- nioniacus, and to Cotys, younger brother of Rhoe- metalces, lesser Armenia. Mauretania was taken over and afterwards (under Claudius) divided into two provinces, named Csesariensis and Tingitana. In Africa the legion was taken from the senatorial proconsul and put under the command of a special leaatus. Under Claudius (41-54) many important administrative changes were made in the provinces. In Germany and Pannonia the extensive operations resulted in no addition to the Empire, but Thrace was at last made a province under a procurator in 46. Lycia was united to Pamphylia as a province under one governor in 43. Macedonia and Achaia, which under Tiberius had been governed by an Imperial leaatus, were restored to the Senate as two separate provinces. In 44 Judaja, which had been for a time under the rule of Herod Agrippa, was put under a procurator.
The most interesting event of Claudms' reign is, however, the annexation of Britain. Britain had been invaded twice by Julius Caesar, but had never been conquered, still less annexed. It was reserved for Claudius to make the southern half of England into the province Britannia, which he visited in person. The Roman forces numbered between
40,000 and 70,000 and were umler the command of A. I'lautius .Silvanus. The lir»t objective seems to have been Essex and Hertford ; Camaloduuum (Colcliester), the cajiital of tlie Trinovantes, was taken and made the capital of the new province. I'lautius, the conqueror of tlie province, remained till 47 as lenalus Augusti pro pnclore. During this period the Romans penetrated at least as far as Somersetshire. At the end of Plautius' com- mand the country comprised within a line drawn from Bath tlirough .Silchestcr, as far as London, with a loop enclosing Colchester, was Roman. Plautius' successor, P. Ostorius Scapula (47-52) conquered the Iceni and drew a line of forts across the country from Gloucester to Colchester. His greatest achievements were along the Welsh border. A fresh advance was made under Nero (54-68), when Suetonius Paulinus was appointed governor (59). His first two years were probably spent in subduing North Wales. An insurrecti(m meantime broke out among the Iceni in the East. On the death of their king their territory had been added to the province. A rising of the Iceni and Trinovantes, who ma.ssacred 70,000 Romans and their allies, recalled Suetonius to the East. He took a terrible vengeance. The after historj' of the province is full of interest, but cannot be pursued here. For the Armenian wars of Nero see under Nero. His reign saw the addition of two provinces to the Roman Empire, Pontus I'oUmoniacus and Alpes Cottice.