which characterized all the words which Christ spoke and the same niany-sidedncss of ellect which characterized all the works which He performed. As 'holy ordinances instituted by Christ' they combine sini]ilicily with mysterious depth ; and from many sparkling facets, with iridescent doc- trine, they retlecL the light.
Literature. — In addition to liooka cited above see Literature ftppeiidod to artt. Baitism, ICrcllARlsr, Khciiatoi-oov ; artt. SaiKAMKNTW, BaPTIHU, KCCIIARIMT, SVMIJUL, Maoic. .Mvhtkry in otlitT Iiiclionaries and Enc>olop:i-(lia8 ; A. V. G. Allen, Chris- titiii IimlHtUioiis, Edinburgh, 181IS; P. Batiffol, I'rimilive Cdthiilicisvt, Eng. tr., London, 1»14 ; W. Beyschla^, jV7' Thenlviji, Eng. tr., Eiiinburgh, 1895; C. Clemen, I'ninilive Chrifiiianity and its Non-Jifwitih Source.t (the introduction to which contains an extensive bibliognijihy), do., 11*12 ; L. R. Farnell, The KmUition of lirliqiun, London, 1906, ' Sacrilicial Conununion in Orcck Keligion,' lU ii. 119U;i-04) :)UOIT. ; Percy Gardner, Ori<nn of llie Lord's Supper, London, 1S93, Kxploralio Evaiiijelifa, do., 1899, The, Grouth oj ChriManilii, do., 190" ; T. R. Glover, The Conjlict of Hrtigions in the Early Roman Empire, do., 1909 ; E. Hatch, liijlueiiee of Greek Ideas and Usar)es upon the Christian Church, do., 1890 ; J. R. lUingworth, Diciiif Immanence, do., 1898 ; F. B. jevons, An Intndnction tu the Stvdir if Comparative Itflt;iion, New York, 1908; H. A. A. Kennedy, St. I'avl and the 'Nystery-Iiidicjions, do., 1913 ; A. Loisy, 'The Christian Mvst.crv,' II.I x. [1911-12] 45fl. ; Lnx Mvndil", ed. C. Oore, London, 1890, pp. 401-433; A. C. McGiffert, Uistori/ of Chrtstianity in the Apostolic Aije, Edinburgh, 1897; 'W. M. Ramsay, The Hearing of Recent Di&corerjj on the Trvstworthinesis of the N7\ London, 1915; W. Sanday, Tfie Life of Christ m Recent Research, Oxford, 1907. IvOGER S. KiRKl'ATKICK.
SACRIFICE. — 1. Sources. — The sacrificial ideas found in the teaching of the Apostolic Church cast their roots so deeply' in the soil of OT ideas and practice tliat careful reference to the sacrilicial system inherited by ajiostolic writers from Jewish sources is essential. Even more closely than in other subjects, the apostolic literature assumes the genetic connexion of Christianity with Judaism in its doctrine of sacrifice. The OT thought-world is everywhere regarded as the basis for exjiound- ing the ultimate and more spiritual exhibitions of the sacrilicial principle characteristic of apostolic interpretation. To make accurately and sympa- thetically the line adjustments necessary between these transformed and spiritualized sacrilicial values and their pre-Christian forms is of first importance. This task is the more ditticult be- cause the Jewish sources are themselves in turn inherited from primitive Semitic usages of which the meaning and origin are at present under in- vestigation and the subject of keen discussion. Possibly reminiscences of each of the main theories advocated respecting the origin of sacrilice may be traced in the terms that illustrate apostolic teach- ing—c. 17. the Gift theory (Pli 4'"), the Homage theory (Ro 12'), the Common Meal theory (1 Co lO"'--) ; the Expiatory theory is too obvious to need references. The one constant element in primitive .sacrilice persisting to apostolic times that modern research, both anthropological and psychological, seems to warrant is that sacrifice appears to have pleased the object of worship and secured the favour of the deity — i.e., it was ' pro- pitiatory ' in the broadest sense. The most reliable expert opinion of dillerent schools of .anthropo- logists regards sacrilice as devised by man as an institution by which he might indicate and satisfy the instincts of his religious nature, and therefore only indirectly I^ivine in its origin. Sacrifice thus originated in jirimitive childlike ideas of God, and developed, through the jiriniary religious instinct of pleasing Him by giving or sharing a meal with Him, into later rites regarded as of expiatory value as the moral consciousness of the race deejiened. Some such long course of development lies behind the appearance of sacrifice in the OT.
(a) Early Israel. — Here sacrilice is regarded as a familiar custom at the beginning of human history ; it originated in the first family ; it was
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patriarchal. It meets us early in the OT as the coiiiparativelv complete and elaborated cultus mirrored in tlie J document, but no lij;ht is thrown upon its oiijjin. Its chief occasions were times of meeting witli Uod ; it markeil the intimate relation- sliip between the t;od and his worshippers ; the prevailing conception of its significance was that it was a present to God in sign of homage, thanks- giving, desire for communion or Divine gifts. The indications here of the stricter motive of expia- tion are very slight, although awe of the. Bivine Presence linds early and constant expression ; and there is little doubt that Israel in all ages believed in the ell'ectiveness of sacrifice to preserve or restore the favour of Jahweh. In view of apostolic teaching the early signilicance of the Covenant Sacrilice should be noted. Its s])eciKc object was to make a covenant sure and binding by the inter- change of blood between tlie parties to it ; half tlie animal victim's blood was poured upon the altar for God and half sprinkled upon the people (cf. Ex 24«-», He 8""- 9''---). The religious efficacy of sacrilice was interpreted according to the degree of ethical and spiritual enlightenment of the otferens. The popular idea of a union cemented by blood in its physical and literal character was be- ginning to be challenged in the early monarchy ; the higher theology of the age was already exclud- ing the idea of God as a fellow-guest, and offerings were regarded as worthless witiiout obedience (cf. 1 S 15'-"-). God was disposed favourably by sacri- fices, but we are not able to say in what manner they were supposed to influence Him. Neither these nor the older Semitic sacrifices were strictly expiatory, as has often been assumed ; even where the animal may have been regarded as the offerer's substitute, it may not necessarily have been as expiation for sin. Human sacritices were unques- tionably offered in the earlier stages of the Hebrew transition from the prehistoric to the historic de- velopment of the doctrine. They were common in Palestinian religion.