(6) Prophetic teaching. — Before touching upon the priestly or Levitical sacrificial system, from which it is evident apostolic teaching chiefly drew its thought-forms and its sacrificial terminology, reference must be made to the attitude taken towards sacrifice by the OT prophets, especially by those of the 8th century. From these the primitive Christian Church drew much of the sub- stance of its teaching on sacrifice as it came to be interpreted in ethical and spiritual values. These two types — prophetic and priestlj' — dominate the structure of our OT sources ; they existed side by side and acted and reacted upon each other. If not distinctly rival systems in the religious thought and practice of Israel, they represent different ideals concerning that which is an acceptable otter- ing to the Lord. To recognize that both of them deeply influenced apostolic views of sacrifice is important. It is not probable that the prophets actually proposed the abolition of sacrifice, as some scholars have maintained. They assumed its legitimacy ; they denied its necessity. Their protest was against the exaggerated importance of sacrifice (cf. Am 5"', Jer 7-"') ; it was not essential to forgiveness. The Levitical cultus provided sacrifice as the chief vehicle of God's grace ; for- giveness is mediated through it. The insistent iterance of the prophetic word is that sacrifice is not essential ; God requires obedience, not sacrifice. Because He is a righteous God, He can accept nothing in place of righteousness. Righteousness is fundamental religion (MicB"'*); without it sacri- fice was an insult to God ; He was weary of it : it provoked Him. Whilst they did not demand a religion without a cultus, i.e. a purely spiritual worship, the prophets denied that sacrifice in itself
has efficacy with God, and that He has appointed it as essential to the ministry of His grace. In thus setting character before cultus the Psalmists join the prophets, em|)hasizing at the same time the abiding value in the sight of God of penitential feeling (cf. Ps 40"'' 51'"-). With the great prophet of the Exile there rises also the commanding figure of tlie .Suffering Servant of the Lord. Out of His personal alUictions for His people grows the vision of a voluntary and jjersonal sacrificial ottering of Himself. This transcends in its perfect ethical and spiritual value all lower ideas associated with the ottering of animal victims (Is 53). The extent to which tills presentation of the Suli'ering Servant and the prophetic attitude of bare tolerance towards the sacrificial system influenced the apos- tolic teaching on sacrifice has not been fully appreciated.
(c) Levitical. — Historically this followed the prophetic period referred to. It did not iiiecedo it, as was formerly thought. The elaboration of the Levitical Code and the bewildering details of the priestly legislation respecting sacrifice led to the depreciation of the prophetic criticism of it. Levitical conceptions became characteristic of the Judaism with which early Christianity had such intimate and vital connexion. The transition from the ethical ideals of the prophets to the ceremonial ritual of the Levitical system carries us into a ditlerent world of sacrificial ideas ; in many re- spects the change marks reaction ; ethically it is on a lower plane, though it may possibly as a hard shell have preserved for future generations the kernel of the prophetic teaching regarding sacri- fice. Its marvellous completeness provided a basis for typological analogy. It was almost inevit- able, in the circumstances in which Christianity arose, that the primitive Church should exten- sively use this as a vehicle for teaching its doctrine of redemption. We need not refuse to see in the rich detail of Jewish sacrifices an unconscious illustrative preparation for apostolic forms of teaching. Yet it is difficult to hold that this whole ceremonial system was instituted with a conscious reference to, or binding authority for, the spiritual teaching of the sacrificial principle in Christianity, in which the Jewish sacrificial system was at once fulfilled and abrogated. The chief feature of the Levitical system, as distinguished from the sacrifices of the earlier cultus in Israel, was the greater importance attached to piacular or expiatory sacrifices — the guilt-, sin-, and trespass- offerings. This resulted from the deepened sense of sin which had developed during the Exile. Originally not more important than other olier- ings, the sin-ottering now becomes the sacrifice par excellence. Eventually this type of sacrifice appears to have overshadowed the other great type represented by the peace-otterings, which assumed that the covenant relations with Jahweh were undisturbed. It was the expiatory type that constituted the daily sacrifice — the continual burnt- ottering — up to apostolic times ; it was regarded as most perfectly embodying, through its vicariou* character, the sacrificial idea ; it was not con- nected with any particular transgression, but was maintained as the appropriate means of a sinful people's approach to a Holy God. Essential features in it were the shedding and sprinkling of blood and the conveyance of the sacrifice entire to God and His ministers ; it was also accompanied by the imposition of hands. The utmost import- ance was attaclied in this type of sacrifice to the disposition of the victim's blood : the blood was God's ; it belonged to Him of right; a mysterious potency inhered in it ; the life was in it (cf. Lv 17") ; safety for the individual and the nation lay in such sacrifices of blood. It is of great im-