(h) Luxarij and extravagance increased in society as slaves increased in numbers and were more
easily acquired. Friedlander points out that in great houses large numbers of slaves were kept merely for ostentatious display. Their service was often limited to ridiculously insignificant functioiLS. Some had only to act as torch-bearers, or as street- attendants : tliere were instances in which slaves had merely ' to serve as clocks and announce the hours ' (Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, ii. 219). Masters and mistresses were thus spared every kind of personal exertion. Clement of Alexandria gives a scathing account of these evils in Pmdagogus, iii. 4.
(c) A tyrannical and ferocious spirit found easy development in the masters. There was always tlie temptation to treat slaves worse than dogs. Moreover, an iron rule seemed the only means of keeping slaves in subjection and guarding against outbreaks of violence. Masters could not feel perfectly sure even of slaves bom on their estates, now much less of those who could be described as a rabble of various nationalities! (Ta.c\i\xs, Ann, xiv. 44). This state of things gave rise to the pro- verb : ' Quot servi, tot hostes.' The master might reckon every slave he had as a foe.
(d) The economic influence of slavery was dis- astrous. Trade and labour came more and more to be carried on by slaves. Poor citizens found themselves almost entirely excluded from ways of getting an honourable livelihood, and sufl'ered degradation in consequence. Many even came to regard trade with repugnance. They betook them- selves to corrupt and corrupting occupations, as actors, pantomimes, hired gladiators, political spies, and the like. Large numbers lived in idle- ness, having corn given them as a right and amuse- ments gratuitously provided ( ' panem et circenses ' ).
(e) Friedlander and others emphasize as the most revolting feature of slavery its ' contemptuous disregard of human dignity^ (op. cit., p. 221). But this is to speak from a modern point of view. We may well agree with J. S. Mill that what most injures and dishonours a country is 'the personal slavery of human beings ' ; but it has taken the world many centuries to realize this. The average Roman citizen of the 1st cent, would be incapable of such a sentiment.
4. The better side of things. — There must, how- ever, have been not a few lights to relieve the heavy shadows of such a system. Instances are not wanting of kindly affection in masters and of loyal devotion in slaves. Tacitus tells of the slave-girls of Octavia who braved torture and death in defence of her good name (Ann. xiv. 60). Slaves were to be found who preferred to remain slaves even when offered the chance of manu- mission (see the case of a slave belonging to the famous Mfeoenas referred to by Suetonius, de Gramm. Illustr. 21). Dt IS""-, it may be remem- bered, provides for such a case as a quite possible thing as regards slavery among the Hebrews. There must have been many houses like that of the younger Pliny, in which, as Seneca says, slaves were regarded as ' humble friends and real members of the family ' (Ep. 47. See also de Benef. iii. 21). Inscriptions, again, often reveal a better side of slave life, testifying to mutual love between master and servant, and also to faithful love between slave-husband and wife, even though de tare slaves could not occupy the status of matrimony (Dill, Roman Society from . Nero to Marcus Aurelius, p. 117).
Many a slave found some amelioration of his lot in being (with his master's permission) a member of one of the numerous collegia or sodalities which formed such a feature of plebeian society in those days. These clubs or unions, as an institution, were of great antiquity, and were maintained ' for protection against oppression, for
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mutual sympathy and support, for relief from the deadly dulness ot an oliscure and sordid life' (Dill, op. cit., p. 256). In their ^atlierinj;s fraternity found exjiression : slave could meet with freeman on equal terms and fuUj' share in the same riy;lita and privilejies. Such !ii'"'Si indeed, most probably furnished to some extent the model on which the fii'st societies of Christians were formed.
It must also bo said that from the time of Auijustua onwards a {jrowingly hiuuane sentiment made itself felt in legislation which decidedly imiu'oved the condition of the slave. The fact, also, that many people of sujierior ability, such as physicians, sculptors, and hllfriitcurs, were of this class made legislative reforms urgent. The mass of laws dealing with slavery was immense (see Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery). By the changes that were made from time to time the absolute power of nuislers over slaves for life or death was curtailed. Thus, the Lex Petronin (in the time of Augustus or Nero) prohibited masters from condemning slaves to liglit with wild beasts unless with judicial .sanction. Under Nero, a special judge was appointed to hear complaints of slaves, and now masters could be punished for ill-treating them. There is on record a case in which Hadrian exiled a Roman lady for live years for treating her slaves with atrocious cruelty.
5. Christianity and slavery. — One thing is clear, however surprising it may seem to some : it was no part of the Christian propaganda to attack slavery as a system and seek its over- throw. But, as B. F. Westcott incidentally remarks, ' the abolition of slavery would have seemed in the first age more impossible than universal peace ' (Lessons from Work, London, 1901, p. 179). The existing social order was accepted as a fact. The Christian message ad- dressed itself primarily to men in themselves. It had nothing to say as to their environment, their social status, the government and laws under which they lived — except so far as there were usages and characteristics of society to be de- nounced (e.g. idolatry, impurity, cruelty) as in deadly conflict with the cultivation of Christian char.acter. So far from directly advocating etiorts to etleut social changes, Christianity rather coun- selled its adherents to acquiesce in their condition, though, as far as the servile class was concerned, their lot too commonly was degraded and hope- less.