25. Building, metal-work, etc. — The stone used for building in the Roman Empire was of necessity generally taken from the districts where the build- ing was to be erected. Thus at Rome, the tufa, the green-grey peperino, and the travertine of the neighbourhood provided what was necessary for monumental buildings. Private houses there were at first built of unburnt bricks, but afterwards of the much more durable burnt bricks. From Greek lands Rome learned the practice of using marble casings for the walls, as well as solid marble pillars to support the upper parts of buildings. White marble was obtained from Hymettus, Pentelicus, Paros, Thasos, Lesbos, and Tyre, and others from the Propontis, Gaul, Egypt, Eubcea, Laconia, Thessaly, Numidia, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia (especi- ally Synnada), etc. The transport of these was an important part of Roman trade, and stone-breakers, stone-cutters, and stone-polishers abounded. The mosaic workers, who constructed their pattern for pavements of houses out of small pieces of stone and glass, deserve mention, as also the constructors of tessellated pavements, including the opus uermi- culatuin and the 'Ki.06<rTpaTov (Jn 19'^). The geo- metrical and pictorial elements were always dis- tinguished. The pictorial part consisted sometimes of a landscape. The workers in mosaic were Romans or Romanized provincials. In building operations there were, of course, various classes oi workmen concerned — stone-cutters, builders, pavement-makers (of various orders according to the kind of pavement), wliite- washers, wall-painters (often with real artistic power), lime-dealers, lime- burners, paint-sellers, brick-makers, etc.
In clay were constructed bricks of various kinds for walls (unburnt, called irXiveos, later ; burnt, K^pa- /ios, testa), etc., and tiles for roofs, the imbrices,
TKADK AIsD COM.MEKCE
TKADITIUN
609
the rounded or upper tiles, and the tcguhr, or flat tiles (cf. I,k u'», Roi)-', etc.). For hmise-building the airdried brick was used in (Jroere and Konie. In Greece the baked brick was known fairly early, but was not introduced in Home till the end of the Uepublic, and there gained only gradual vogue. These bricks were of various sizes. The burnt bricks were used by preference for important build- ings. Other house-works in clay were pipes for heating, water-pipes, cubic and other torms of tile for mosaic, decorations on idllars, windows, cornices, gutters, outer and inner friezes. The last were in blocks with holes for nails, and often painted. Sarcophagi, drinking cups, bath-tubs, statues, lamps, were also nuule of clay. But the numerous kinds of terra -cotta vessels were the most conspicuous works in clay, the large wine casks (dolia), big enough to hold a man, the smaller wine-jars (amphora: or cadi), the water pitcher {iinin, iiSpla, Jn 2"' ' 4™), the laffoota, anipidla, ffiitux, crater, cyathvs, phiala (Rev 16, etc., where (if gold), patera, cnlix, scyphus, can! hams, car- ritcsiinn, ciburium, wine-cups of various sizes and shapes, the mention of which is familiar to the reader of Horace (cf. Rev 2-"). Plates and dishes for food, such as the Trapo\j/iSfi (Mt 2:5-'), washing basins, and cooking vessels of various l<inds were also constructed of this useful material. Clay vessels were made in various colours — yellow- brown for wine casks and jars ; red, various in shade .and quality, for plates ; grey and black.
Some reference has been made above to localities in which the manufacture of these vessels was carried on, sucli as various places in Italy, Greece, Spain, France, Germany, and Britain.
The metals in use in antiquity were especially gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead, which were subjected to the same processes as in modern times. Statuettes were made particularly in gold and silver, and there is a well-known reference to the latter in combination with shrines in Ac 19'^''-. Metal knobs as ornaments of sceptres, girdles, cups, bridles, etc., were known from early times. In the construction of weapons of war — shields, helmets, breastplates, etc. (cf. Eph 6"''-) — metal jilayed, of course, a very important part. Wooden furniture of all kinds, such as couches, cupboards, chests, carriages, was tipped with metal or covered with metal ]ilates, generally with relief work on them. In addition to the metals as al>ove men- tioned, bronze (1 Co 13') was much used for a great variety of purposes. A special department of metal work was that of wine-cujis and other table furniture. The Honuin tallies were laden with silver plate, and the smaller houses took pride in their silver salt-cellars, which had de- scended as heirlooms, if tliey had nothing l.irgcr to pride themselves on. Of cast-metal the finest prod<icts were the Corinthian bronze statues, worth more than their weight in gold. Gold itself was used for collars, armlets, chai>lets, charms, finger-rings (Ja 2"), as well as for coins, hair-pins, hair-nets, bandeaux, ear-rings, necklets, chains, bracelets, anklets, brooches, etc., either set with precious stones or not. It is hardly necessary to mention the use of metal for needles, ])ens, surgical instruments, knives, skin-scrapers, etc.
Wood obtained from the wood-merchants wa.s used especially in the building of hou.ses and ships. The builders of these were divided into various classes according to the particular work which each undertook, and the workers, like all others, were members of trade-gilds. The most elaliorate internal work was that of the wonderful ceilings [Incnnaria, laquearm) which became such a feature of the richer Roman houses. Taldes, of which the most expensive were those of citrus vol.. II.— 39
wood from North Africa, coudics of all kinds, chairs of various kinds, and benches were made of wood. Vehicles of all sorts were constructed for the most part of wood. It is remarkable that nearly all their types were of Gaulish origin, though certain of them {/lilctita, carpenia) were early Roman. Sedan chairs must not be forgotten ; they were much used in the city of Rome, because heavier carriages were forbidden there.