The life of Jesus by Dr. F. Strauss (1885), who de- clared the Biblical account of the life of Jesus a myth, and, in his "Christian Doctrine in its Historic Devel- opment," attacked even the belief in the personality of God and the immortality of the human soul, called forth a large number of apologetic works, which, more than had been done before, urged the absolute purity and sinlessness of the character of Jesus, and the fact that his personality is unique and without parallel in his- tory, as the strongest argument to be used by the Christian apologist. The celebrated work of Ullmann (Sundlositjkeit Jesu, Hamburg, 183S) t< ok this ground,
APOLOGY
305
APOLOGY
and stands at the head of a large class of apologetic literature. In 1863 Kenan's Vie de Jesus appeared in France, followed, in Germany, by a new work from Strauss on the same subject, by Sehenkel's Charac- terbild Jem, and by Sehleiermachcr's posthumous "Leben Jem" (Berlin, 1864). A vast apologetic liter- ature on this subject sprang up in France, Germany, and England, for the literature of which, see Jesus. L. Feucrbach, in his work on the " Essence of Chris- tianity" (Wesen des Christenthums, 1841), went even beyond Strauss, to the extreme limit of nihilism. He rejected religion itself as a dream and an illusion, from which, when man awakes, he finds only himself. He became the founder of a new school of materialism, which showed an extraordinary literary productivity, and gained considerable influence. See Material- ism. Among the most important apologies of Chris- tianity against this school belong the Letters on Ma- terialism from Fabri (Briefe fiber den Materlalismus), and the works of Bohner. An "Apology of Christi- anity from the stand-point of national psychology" was written by R. T. Grau (Semiten und Indogerma- ni?i In Hirer Befiihigung zur Religion und Wissenschnft. Eine Apologia des Christcnthums vom Standpunkie der Vblkerpsychologie (Stuttgart, 18G4, 8vo) for the pur- pose of refuting the objections made by Kenan, Strauss, and others, to the universal character of the Christian religion on account of its Semitic origin. As Strauss, Kenan, Feuerbach, and many other modern opponents denied the possibility of miracles, and made this their chief argument against the truth of supranatural Chris- tianity, a considerable number of works was called forth in defence of miracles, all of which are intended to be more or less apologies of Christianity. See the most important works of this class under Miracles.
One of the ablest German apologetic works of mod- ern times is Auberlen's Gottllche Offenburung (Basil. vol. i, 1861; vol. ii, 1864), which, unfortunately, was left incomplete by the death of the author in 1864. See Auberlen. Among the recent works which are more popular than scientific, none has produced a more profound sensation tban Guizot's Meditations sur V Es- sence d>, la Religion Chretienne (Paris, 1864; translated into English, German, and most of the European lan- guages). Guizot undertakes an apology of those fun- damental doctrines of Christianity which are common to both evangelical Protestants and Roman Catholics, and he treats, in succession, of creation, revelation, inspiration, the essence of God, the person and the work of Christ, and he particularly dwells on the be- lief in inspiration. Luthardt's Apologetlsche Vortrilge (Lips. 1864) are ten lectures, held at Leipsic, to show the fundamental difference between the two views of the world (Weltanschauung') which now dispute with each other the control of modern society, and the abil- ity of Christianity alone to furnish a satisfactory so- lution of the problem of human life with all its mys- teries. Similar is a posthumous work by Thorn Wizenmann (died 1787, q. v.). Zur Philosophic vnd Geschichte dr Offenbarung (Basil. 1864). The author was a contemporary of Kant, Jacoby, Hermann, II a- mann, and Lavater, by all of whom he was highly es- teemed. Auberlen, who published the above edition, called attention to his importance as an apologist in the Jahrbucher fur deutsche Theolhgie for 1864. Other apologetic works recently published in Germany are Gess and Kiggenbach's Apologetische fieitnige (Basil. 1863); a collection often lectures by Auberlen, (less, Preiswerk, Riggenbach, Stahelin, Stockmcyer, under the title Zur I \ rantwortung dt s christlichen Glaubens (Ba- sil. 1861, 8vo); Vosen (Rom. Cath.), Das Christenthum und die Einspruche seiner (,'ei/ni r (Freiburg. 1864, 8vo) ; Hettinger (Rom. Cathol.), Apologie des Christenthums (vol. i, Freiburg, 1863, 8vo) ; Hillen (Rom. Cathol.), Apologie des Christenthum.-: (Warendorf, 1863) ; Zezsch- witz, Zur Apologie des Christenthums nach Geschichte und Lehre (Leips. 1866, 8vo). A new monthly, entitled U
Beweis des Glaubens, devoted entirely to apologetics, was commenced in I860 at Giitersloh. It has the ser- vices of Andrew, Zockler, and Grau, the two latter of whom are authors of apologetical works mentioned above.
2. French. — At the head of modern French apolo- gists, of course, stands Pascal (q. v.); Huet's Demon,, stra'.io Evaiigelica ("2d ed. 1680) followed; also Houtte- ville, mentioned above (172i'). Among the Roman Catholics, Fcnclon, Letlres sur la Religion (1718); Le Vassor (1718) ; Lamy(1715); D'Aguesseau (f 1751) ; among Protestants, Abbadie (q. v. f 1727); Jacquelot (f 1708) ; in answer to the French encyclopaedists especially, Abbe Guene, the author of Molse venge (1769) ; Bergier, in bis Traite hlstorique et Doffma- tlque de la vraie Religion (Paris, 2d ed. 1780, 12 vols. ; Bamberg, 1813, 12 vols.). F. A. Chateaubriand also sought to prove the heavenly origin of Christianity in his Genie du Christianisme (Paris, 1802; often re- printed and translated), and in his Les Martyrs. The deficiencies of French apologetics are sharply noted by Chassay, Introduction aux Demonstrations Evan- geliques (Migne, Paris, 1858, 8vo). The Romanist reactionary school, headed by de Maistre (1753-1821), mingles apologetics with defence of Romanism, and of the absolute authority of the church (see Morell, History of Modern Philosophy, chap, vi, § 2). A school of ultra Rationalists has lately sprung up in France, of which Colani and Reville are types. Sec Rationalism. The Evangelical school, on the other hand, has produced able advocates of Christianity in Yinet (q. v.) ; Pressense (see the Revue Chretienne, passim), and Astie, Les Deux Theologies (Geneva, 1863). Among modern French apologists we notice the Ro- man Catholics R. de la Mennais (f 1854) and Frays- sinous (f 1841). They, however, like de Maistre, so identify Christianity with Roman Catholicism tln.t their works are available only for those of their own church. In the Reformed Church, E. Diodati, of Ge- neva, addresses his Essai sur le Christianisme especially to the will. For the numerous writers in answer to Renan, see the bibliography under Jesus.