reward his own grace as a thing excellent in itself" (Shedd, History of Doctrines, ii, 330). (0) As to the sacramenK lie taught that they are the necessary media of the application of Christ's merits to men. lb- endeavors to prove the necessity of the seven sac- raments on the principle that the whole life should he consecrated to Gcd's grace; its gradual development from birth to death was surrounded by the sacraments.
(i) The birth of the spiritual life takes place in bap- tism ; (ii) the growth to maturity is through confirm- ation ; (iii) the nourishment of the spiritual life is through the Lord's Supper. If man were bodily and spiritually sound throughout, he needs nothing more ; but for the healing of his sickly state he requires (iv) penance ; (v) the promotion of his recovery by certain means is signified by extreme unction. (7) As to the future state of man, he goes into details on the resur- rection bod}'. According to quest. 81 (Summa, pt. iii), those who are raised from the dead will be in the (etas juvenilis, qua) inter decrementum et incrcmentum in- stituitnr. The difference of sexes will continue to ex- ist, but without sensual appetites. All the organs of sense will still be active, with the exception of the sense of taste. It is however possible that even the latter may be rendered more perfect, and fitted for ad- equate functions and enjoyments. Hair and nails are one of the ornaments of man, and are therefore quite as necessary as blood and other fluids. The resurrec- tion bodies will be exceeding!}' fine, and be delivered from the heavy weight which is now so burdensome to them ; nevertheless they will be tangible, as the body of Christ could be touched after his resurrection. But this is true only in reference to the bodies of the blessed. The bodies of the damned are ugly and de- formed ; they are incorruptible, but capable of suffer- ing, which is not the case with the bodies of the saints" (Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 204).
The scholastic philosophy reached its culmination in Aquinas. He rendered real service to the Aristotelian philosophy by the pains he took to effect a translation of the works in which it was contained, and by his commentaries on them. He was a Realist, inasmuch as he maintained that the ideas of things after the pat- tern of which the world was made pre-existed eternal- ly in the Divine mind (although not independent of God), and regarded them as the proper objects of knowledge, and as the forms which determine the na- ture and properties of all things. This system he en- deavored to place on a firmer basis by extending the theory of thought propounded by Aristotle, to which he superadded some ideas of the system of Plato and of the Alexandrians. With this is connected his ex- planation of the conceptions of matter and form, as elements of compound substances, as also his explana- tion of the principle of individuation. The rational soul, the nature of which be discusses after Aristotle's system, is the substantial form of man, immaterial and indestructible. The aim of Aquinas, as a Chris- tian philosopher, was to prove the reasonableness of Christianity, which he attempted to accomplish by showing, 1st, that it contains a portion of truth ; 2d, that it falls under the cognizance of reason ; and, 3d, that it contains nothing contradictory to reason. In connection with the latter argument he starts from the assumption that the truths of reason are essentially one with Divine truth, because rr ason is derived from God. Philosophy consists, according to him, in sci- ence searching for truth with the instrument of human reason ; but he maintains that it was necessary for the salvation of man that Divine revelation should disclose to him certain things transcending the grasp of human reason. He regarded theology, therefore, as the offspring of the union of philosophy and relig- ion (Tennemann, Hist, of Philosophy).
The Dominican monks, especially, naturally proud of their greatest doctor, have always maintained '1 hom- ism, as the doctrines of Aquinas have been named. The Franciscans, on the other hand, have always op- posed Thomism; on,: of their greatest doctors, Bona- ventura (q. v., doctor seraphicus, f l"-74), opposed Aqui- nas on mystical grounds, and Duns Scotus (q. v., doctor subtilis, f 1308) on dialectical grounds: they were enrolled in solid body against it. The Thomists were Aristotelians, generally Realists ; followed Au- gustine as to sin, grace, etc. ; opposed the immaculate
AQUINO
331
ARAB
conception, and held that the sacraments convey grace physically. The Scotists were Nominalists, were opposed to Augustine's doctrines of grace and predestination, maintained the immaculate conception, and held that the sacraments produce grace as moral causes, not as physical. The Roman see naturally in- clined t> favor the doctrines of the Scotists, but the pres!ig> of Aquinas was so great that the Thomists, to a great extent, ruled the theology of the church up to the tinu of the controversy between the Molinists (q. v.) and the Jansenists, when the views of the Scotists substantially prevailed.