That the Greeks likewise understood the principle of the construction of the arch in very ancient times is evident from monuments as early as the Trojan war (Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Arcus), a cut of ono of which is subjoined.
Antique Arch in the Wall of Tiryns.
Triumphal arches were frequently erected by the Roman emperors to commemorate signal conquests, and several such are yet standing. The most note- worthy of these is that of Titus, on the interior of which are delineated the spoils of the Jewish temple.
Arched Drain
Arch of Titus at Home, restored.
Archaeology (apxaidkoyfa, the knowledge of an- tiquity, antiquarian lore). This word is used by dif- ferent writers in three senses : 1st, as including all the elements of public and private life of ancient peoples, together with their language, history, and the geogra- phy of their lands ; 2d, as embracing only a scientific knowledge of the material, and especially monumental remains of ancient civilizations (in this sense, see An- tiquities); or, 3d, as synonymous with the history of the formative arts of the ancients (in this sense, see art. Christian).
Wo use the word in the first or more general sense, omitting history and geography, however, from the
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ARCHAEOLOGY
definition. Sacred Archaeology naturally divides itself into (1st) Jewish and (2d) Christian.
I. Jewish. — This has been defined as the science that makes us acquainted with the physical nature and social condition of those countries where the He- brew Scriptures originated and to which they relate (Gesenius, in the If all. Encyclop. x, 74; comp. De Wette, Archaol. § 1). Some (as Jahn) regard it as including history and geography, but it is usually considered as embracing only such subjects as are in- volved in the science, art, and customs (political, so- cial, and religious) of the nations of the Bible, espe- cially the Jews (Hagcnbach, Encyhl. § 45 ; Schleier- macher, Darstell. d. theol. Studien, § 140). For the general history and the best treatises on the whole subject, see Antiquities ; it is the object of the pres- ent article to indicate more in detail the principal original materials and sources of Biblical archaeology (comp. Rosenmuller, Al/erthumsk. I, i, 6-130 ; Duncker, Gesch. des Allerthums, Berl. 1852, 4 vols.).
1. Sources of 'arch eological Knowledge. — a. Remains of ancient Hebrew Art. These are unfortunately few, and but imperfectly understood, and are confined almost entirely to Palestine. Many of the reputed monuments of Old Testament times owe their authori- ty to mediaeval (Mohammedan or Christian) tradition. A most important monument illustrating the Jewish service is the triumphal arch (q. v.) of Titus at Rome, containing in relief a delineation of the spoils of the Temple at Jerusalem (see Reland, De spol. templi Ilie- ros. Traj. a. Rh. 1716, 2d cd. by Schulze, 1775). Besides these, the only genuine monuments in artistic relics are the Jewish " Samaritan" coins (q. v.), especially those of the Maccabees (see Bayer, De minimis Ilebr.- Samar. Valenc. 1784). The monumental remains of neighboring countries are also useful in the stud}- of Jewish archaeology, especially the sculptures of Egypt (see Description de VEgypte, Par. 1808 ; Rosellini, Mon- umenti dell' Egitto, Padua, 1K34; Wilkinson, Anc, Egyp- tians, Lond. 1847, N. Y. 1*54 ; comp. Lane's Mod. Egyp- tians, Lond. 1842), the Phoenician inscriptions and coins (see Levy, Phdnikische, Studien, Brcslau, 1856-62; Ge- senius, PhtBtt. monumenta, Lips. 1837 ; also the numis- matic works of Vaillant, Par. 1682; and Frohlich, Yin- dob. 1744), the ruins and sculptures of Persepolis (see the Travels of Ker Porter, Chardin, and Ouscly) and Pctra (see the Travels of Laborde and Olin), and the monuments of Nineveh and B ibylon recently discover- ed by Botta and Layard. b. Written Memorials. — The Bible itself stands first in value as the chief source of Jewish archaeology. Next are the works of Josephus and Philo, which are of great service ; then follow the Talmuds (q. v.), and the Rabbins (q. v.), whose state- ments must be used carefully (see Meuschen's N. T. ex Tallinn!, illustr. 1736; Lightfoot, flor. Hebr. Cantab. 1658; Schcettgen, //or. Hebr. 1733-1742 ; Wetstein, Annot. in X. T. Amst. 1751). To these may be added notices respecting Egypt, Persia, Judaea, etc., found occasionally in Greek and Roman writers, especially Herodotus (see Hupfeld, Exercit. Herod, i, ii) ; next, Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, Justinian, give illustrations of the customs of the times, particularly useful for the elucidation of the N. I'., although they are very much given to mis- representation ofthe Jews. c. Oriental Treatises, such as geographies and works on natural history, like those ofEdrisi, Ibn Hautal, Abulfeda, Abdollatif, Avicenna; to which may be added the slight illustra- tion to be derived from Eastern sacred books, such as the Koran, Zendavesta, Hamasa, and likewise the old historical and poetical productions ofthe East. d. Travels in Oriental countries, particularly Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine, with itineraries, maps, and ob- servations, from the 7th century, through the Middle Ages, down to modern times, constituting an immense fund of information, anil affording reports not only on the geography, but also the natural history, and
particularly the customs and social condition of the lands of the Bible, which have been proverbial for their uniformity. See a list of these at the end of the art. Palestine. The archaeological knowledge acquired by the Crusades may be found in the work of Bongarsius, entitled Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanov. 1611) ; many of the earl)' travels are collected in the Bewahrten Reisbuch d. he'd. Landes (1609), the most val- uable of which were published with notes by Paulus (Jena, 1792). For a fuller view of the literature of the subject, see Mensel's Bibl. Hist, i, 2, p. 70 ; Winer's Handb. d. theol. Lit. i, 151, 3d ed. ; and Ritter's Erd- kunde, XY, i.