2. Departments of Biblical Archeology (see gener- ally the extensive Bibl. Archaol. of Jahn, Wien, 1790- 1805). — a. The Geography of Bible lands, including not only Palestine and its immediate neighborhood, but also Egypt, the high interior of Asia, Mesopota- mia, Asia Minor, and to some extent Greece and Ita- ly, with an elucidation of the ethnographical table in Gen. x (see Gesenius, in the Hall. Encyklop. x, 84 sq.). The most comprehensive work on this subject is that of Bochart, entitled Phaleg (Cadom. 1646, Frankf. 1674), with the supplement of Michaelis, en- titled Spicilegium (Gott. 1780); to which may be add- ed as an accompaniment Knobel's Volkertafel (Giess. 1850). On Palestine and vicinity alone may be named, as well-nigh exhaustive of the ancient materials, Re- land's Palmstina (Utrecht, 1614, etc.) ; the most con- venient manual is Raumer's Paldstina (3d ed. Lpz. 1850 ; and the most complete and exact modern book of travels is Robinson's Researches (2d ed. N. Y..1856). General works on the subject are especially Hames- veld's Bibl. Geographic (2d ed. Hamb. 1793-1796), Rit- '. ter's Erdkund" (Berl. 1817 sq.), and Robinson's Physical Geography ofthe Holy Land. The best maps are these of Berghaus (1835); Zimmermann (Berlin, 1850); Kiepert (Berlin, 1857); and Van de Yelde (Gotha, 1859). b. On the Natural History of the Bible there are principally Scheuchzer's Physica Sacra (Augsb. 1731) ; Oedmann's Vermischte Samml. (Rost. 1786) ; Th. M. Harris, Natural Hist, ofthe Bible (Lond. 1824) ; J. B. Friedreich, Zur Bibel (Nurnberg, 1848) ; while on Biblical zoology and botany separately the only complete treatises are still respectively Bochart's Ilierozoicon (Lond. 1663), and Celsius's Hierobotanicum (Upsala, 1745). On the Domestic Habits of the Hebrews ma}' be named Selden, Uxor Ebr. (Lond. 1640); Michaelis, Ehegesetze Mosis (Gotting. 1786); Benary, De Hebr. cirratu (Berl. 1835) ; Schroder, De restitu mulier. Hebr. (Leyd. 1745) ; Hartmann, He- briierin am Put.ztische (Amst. 1809). d. On Biblical Agriculture, Paulsen, Ackerhau d. Morgenliinder (Helmst. 1748) ; and the two prize essays by Buhle and Walch, Calendariiim Palicst. (Gott. 1785). e. The Social Relations of the Hebrews are treated in works on their political and judicial institutions, espe- cially Michaelis, Mos. Recht. (Frkft. 1775-1780) ; Hull, maim, Staatsccrfissung d. Isr. (Lpz. 1834) ; Selden, De jure naturali (Lond. 1640); Saalschiitz, Das Mos. Recht (Berlin, 1840-48, 2 vols.). /. On Jewish and the connected Weights and Measures may be es- pecially consulted Boekh, Metroloq. Untersuch. (Berl. 1838) ;" Bertheau, Gesch. d. Isr. (Gott. 1842). g. The Hebrew Arts have been specially treated, as to Poet- ry, by Lowth, De sacra poesi Hebr. (ed. Michaelis, 1768, and Rosenmuller, 1815); Herder, Geist. d. heb. Poesie (1782); E. Meier, Form d. hebr. Poes-ie (Tub. 1853), and Gesch. d. poet. Nat. -Liter aiur der Hebrceer (Leipz. 1856); Saalschiitz, Form u. Geist der hebr. Poesie (Koenigsberg, 1856); as to Music, by Saal- schiitz, Gesch. d. Musih lei d. Hebr. (Berl. 1829); Schneider, Darstell. d. hebr. Musik (Bonn); Weiss- man, Geschichte der Musik (Munich, 1862; still going on); as to Architecture, by Hist, D. Tempel Salomons (Berl. 1S09). h. The Religious Usages of the He- brews, including the moral condition of surrounding
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nations, have been specially treated by Spencer, De legibus Hebr. ritualibus (Camb. 1685); Reland, Antiq. sacrce vet. Hebr. (Utrecht, 1708, etc.) ; Vitringa, Da Synagog. vet. (Frankf. 1696) ; and, as exhibiting more modern views, Bahr, Symboiik a. Mas. Cultus (Hei- delb. 1837). The foregoing are but a few leading works ; for others, see each subject in its alphabetical place. — Ilerzog, Real-Encykl. s. v.
II. Christian Archceology is that branch of theolog- ical science the object of which is to represent the ex- ternal phenomena of the ancient Church, i. e. its insti- tutions, usages, ceremonies, etc. Theologians are not yet agreed how far the period of the ancient Church ought to be extended, and what matter, consequently, Christian archaeology ought to comprise. The pre- vailing opinion at present is that it ought mainly to extend over the first six centuries, and ought not to include the constitution of the Church. It is also generally agreed that, in representing the external forms of the ancient Church, the subsequent develop- ments of these forms up to the present times ought to be constantly kept in view and referred to.
1. Sources of Christian archaeological Knowledge: (a) Remains. — The first class of sources consists of ancient remains, such as monuments, works of art [see Art, Christian], inscriptions (q. v.), and designs on tombs, arches, buildings, and other monuments ; medals and coins (q. v.) ; catacombs (q. v.) and other places of burial (q. v.). (b) Written Memorials.— The New Testament, of course, gives the beginnings of the most important Christian usages, such as Baptism, the Lord's Supper, Ordination, Prayer, etc. Next in importance come the writings of the apostolical fathers (q. v.), and of contemporaneous pagan writers, e. g. Pliny, Taci- tus, Celsus, Julian, etc. After these come the fathers (q. v.) generally, and at a later period, liturgies, de- crees of councils, etc.
2. Christian archaeology, as a science, cannot be said to have fairly arisen before the 18th century. Nevertheless, in the struggles of the Reformation, both parties appealed to primitive usage, and this appeal made the study of antiquities a necessity. The church historians, therefore (the Magdeburg centuriators, 1559-1574, 13 vols, fol., on the Protestant side, and Baronius [f 1607], in his Annates Ecclesiastici, on the Roman Catholic side), treated of the polity, worship, usages, etc., of the ancient church. As early as 1645 Casalius wrote his Christianorum Ritus Veieres (Ro- man Catholic), who was followed by Cardinal Bona (f 1694), Claude Fleury (1682), and by Edm. Martene, whose work De antiquis ecclesice ritibus (Antw. 1736- 38, 4 vols, fol.) belongs among the best of the ancient works. But the science, in its modern form, may be said to have originated with Bingham's massive work, the Origines Ecclesiastic"; which first appeared in 10 vols. 8vo, 1710-1722. It is divided into twenty-three books, of which the titles are, I. Names and Orders of Men in the. Early Church ; II. Superior Orders of Clergy; III. Inferior Orders of Clergy; IV. Elec- tions and Ordinations of Clergy ; Y. Privileges, Im- munities, and Revenues of Clergy; VI. Rules of Life for Clergy; VII. Ascetics; VIII. Church Edifices, etc. ; IX. Geographical Divisions of the Ancient Church; X. Catechumens and Creeds ; XI. Rites of Baptism; XII. Confirmation and other Ceremonies following Baptism; XIII. Divine Worship; XIV. Catechumen Service; XV. Communion Service: XVI. Unity and Discipline of the Ancient Church; XVII. Discipline of the Clergy ; XVIII. Penitents and Pen- ance; XIX. Absolution; XX. Festivals; XXI. Fasts; XXII. Marriage Rites; XXIII. Funeral Rites. This vast work, the product of twenty years of industry, is full of erudition, especially patristical, and the mate- rial is set forth generally with simplicity and discre- tion. It is a store-house from which all subsequent writers have drawn copiously. But it. lacks scientific method, and has the disadvantage of a High-Church