There must be a recognised system of notation, p"ho. netic or symbolic ; men must be taught to write, and have writing materials at hand. In the earlj' nomadic stages of society accordingly, like those which mark the period of the patriarchs of the O. T., we find no traces of any but oral communications. In the Ho- meric poems, though messages are usual, yet a sort of hieroglyphical letters is not unknown (//. vi, 168). jMessengers were sent instructed what to say from Jacob to Esau (Gen. xxxii, 3), from Balak to Balaam (Num. xxii, 5, 7, 16), bringing back in like manner a verbal, not a written answer (Num. xxiv, 12). See Messenger. The negotiations between Jeijhthah and the king of the Ammonites (Judg. xi, 12, 13) were conducted in the same way. It was still the received practice in the time of Saul (1 Sam, xi, 7, 9). The reign of David, bringing the Israelites, as it did, into contact with the higher civilization of the Phoenicians, witnessed a change in this respect also. See Ajibas- SADOE. The first recorded letter ("ED = " book;" comp. use of (3if3\lov, Herod, i, 123) in the history of the O. T. was that which " David wrote to Joab, and sent bj^ the hand of Uriah" (2 Sam. xi, 14), and this must obvioush', like the letters that came into another histor}' of crime (in this case also in traceable connec- tion with Phcenician influence, 1 Kings xxi, 8, 9), have been "sealed with the king's seal,' as at once the guarantee of their authority, and a safeguard against their being read by any but the persons to whom they were addressed, 'ihe material used for the impression of the seal was probablj' the " clay'' of Job xxxviii, 14. The act of sending such a letter is, however, pre-eminently, if not exclusively, a kiugly act, where authority and secrec}' were necessary. Hence they contained simply royal commands, and nothing is said of salutation or even address in con- nection with them. Joab, on the other hand, answers the letter which David had sent him after the old plan, and receives a verbal message in return. The demand of Benhadad and Ahab's answer to it are conveyed in the same way (1 Kings xx, 2, 5). Jehu wrote letters, and sent them to Samaria to authorities, respecting Ahab's children, the form of which, or of the one tran- scribed, is the first instance in the Bible of anything like a formula. It begins, "Now as scon as this let- ter ccmeth to you," but ends without anj- like phrase. It was apparently replied to hy a message, and Jehu wrote another letter, which, as given, has not the same peculiarity as the first. That Jehu, who, though per- haps well born, was a rough soldier, should have writ- ten— and there is no ground for supposing that he used a scribe, but, from the extremely characteristic style, rather evidence against such an idea — indicates that letter-writing was then common (2 Kings x, 1-7). In this case secrecy may have been tb.ought desirable, but the importance of the matter would have been a sufficient reason for writing. AVrittcn communica- tions, however, become more frequent in the later histor}'. The letter which the king of Syria, Benha- dad, sent by Naaman to Jehoram, king of Israel, though to a sovereign with whom the writer was at peace, is in the same peremptory style, with no salu- tation (2 Kings V, 5, 6), frtmi which we may conjec- ture that only the principal contents are given in this and like instances. The "writing" (-Pi^'i) to Jeho- ram, king of Judah, from Elijah (q. v.) must have been a written prophecy rather than a letter (2 Chron. xxi, 12-15) ; though it must be observed that such prophe- cies when addressed to persons arc of an epist<dary character. Hezekiah, when he summoned the whole nation to keep the Passover, sent letters "from the king and his princes," as had been determined at a council held at Jerusalem by the king, the princes, and all the congregation. The contents of these let- ters are given, or the substance. The form is that of an exhortation, without, however, addrcse. The
EPISTLE
269
EPISTLE
character is that of a religious proclamation (2 Chron. XXX, 1-9). Hezeliiah, in fact, introduced a sj'stem of couriers like that afterwards so fully organized un- der the Persian kings (conip. Herod, viii, 98, and Esth. viii, 10, 14). The letter or letters of Sennacherib to Hezekiah seem to have been written instructions to his messengers, which were given to Hezekiah to show him that they had their master's authority. It is to be observed that the messengers were command- ed, " Thus sliall ye speak to Hezekiah," and that Hez- ekiah "received the letter" from them. What he re- ceived was probably a roll of papj'rus, as that which Jehoiakim burnt seems to have been (Jer. xxxvi, 23), for when ho took it to the Temple he " spread it be- fore the Lord" (2 Kings xix, 9-1-1 ; Isa. xxxvii, 9-14 ; comp. 2 Chron. xxxii, 17). It does not appear to have been usual for the prophets to write letters. Generallj' they seem, when they did not go themselves to those ■whom they would address, eitlier to have sent a mes- senger, or to have publicly proclaimed what they were commissioned to say, knowing that the report of it would be carried to those whom it specially concern- ed. When Nebuchadnezzar had carried captive some of the people of Judah, we read how Jeremiali address- ed them by a letter, which is a written exhortation and propliecy (xxix, 1-23). It can scared}^ be said that here we perceive a positive distinction between the later prophets and the earlier, for Elijah sent a letter or "writing" to Jehoram, Icing of Judah, as al- ready noticed. The distance of Babylon from Jerusa- lem, and of Jerusalem from the kingdom Avhich was the scene of Elijah's ministry, seems to aft'ord the true explanation. That letters were not uncommon be- tween the captives at Babj'lon and those who remain- ed at Jerusalem before it was destroyed, appears prob- able from the mention of letters to Zephaniah the priest, and to others from a false prophet Shemaiah, at Babylon, in contradiction of Jeremiah's letter (24- 29). Jeremiah was commanded to send to the cap- tives a condemnation of this man (30-32), and it is therefore probable that at least three letters passed on this occasion. Though with the little evidence we have we cannot speak positivelj', it seems as if the custom of letter-writing had become more common by degrees, although there is no ground for inferring any change in its character. Still we find notliing of an address or signature. The letter seems to be always a document, generally a message written for greater security or to have full authority, and was probably rolled, tied up, and sealed with the writer's seal. See Letter.